Mixed

High levels of foreign direct investment (FDI) and free-trade agreements with high-income countries drive increased consumption of unhealthy commodities (soft drinks, processed foods, tobacco, alcohol) in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), independent of economic growth.

For policymakers in LMICs: Do not assume economic growth will automatically lead to better health or that unhealthy consumption is inevitable. Prioritize regulations on foreign direct investment and free-trade agreements. Restricting market access for multinational unhealthy commodity producers can prevent the rise of NCDs, even as the economy grows. Focus on domestic food system resilience rather than open markets for processed foods.