Mixed
Consumption of 3-4 cups of coffee per day is associated with the largest reduction in relative risk for all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality, and cardiovascular disease compared to non-consumption.
If you drink coffee, 3-4 cups a day appears to offer the greatest protection against early death and heart disease based on current observational data. If you do not drink coffee, this review does not strongly recommend starting, as causation is not proven, but it suggests that moderate consumption is likely safe and potentially beneficial for most adults.
summary estimates indicating largest relative risk reduction at intakes of three to four cups a day versus none, including all cause mortality (relative risk 0.83, 95% confidence interval 0.83 to 0.88), cardiovascular mortality (0.81, 0.72 to 0.90), and cardiovascular disease (0.85, 0.80 to 0.90).
Why this rating
Evidence is derived from meta-analyses of observational studies, which the authors note is of lower quality and cannot establish causation without RCTs.
Source
Coffee consumption and health: umbrella review of meta-analyses of multiple health outcomes
Robin Poole et al. · BMJ · 2017
DOI 10.1136/bmj.j5024
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