Browse the evidence

Early time-restricted feeding (eTRF), defined as an 8-hour eating window between 06:00 and 15:00, significantly improves insulin sensitivity, reduces fasting glucose, lowers body mass and adiposity, and reduces inflammation in healthy non-obese adults compared to ad libitum eating.

If you are healthy and not obese, try eating all your meals within an 8-hour window that ends by 3 PM (e.g., 7 AM to 3 PM). You do not need to count calories or restrict food types, just the timing. This specific timing window has been shown to improve insulin sensitivity and reduce body fat more effectively than eating later in the day or eating whenever you want.

Adopting a flexitarian or semi-vegetarian diet (SVD) is associated with a reduced risk of type 2 diabetes and improved metabolic health markers (glucose, insulin, blood pressure) compared to non-vegetarian diets.

To lower your risk of type 2 diabetes and improve metabolic health, consider a flexitarian diet. This involves eating meat occasionally (e.g., less than once a week) or excluding red meat while eating poultry and fish. Studies show this pattern is associated with lower diabetes prevalence and better blood pressure control compared to standard non-vegetarian diets.

In patients with Type 2 Diabetes and NAFLD, adding liraglutide or sitagliptin to metformin significantly reduces intrahepatic lipid, visceral adipose tissue, and body weight, whereas adding insulin glargine does not.

If you have Type 2 Diabetes and fatty liver, adding a GLP-1 agonist (like liraglutide) or a DPP-4 inhibitor (like sitagliptin) to your metformin can significantly reduce liver fat and belly fat. Adding insulin, however, does not appear to reduce liver or belly fat, even though it controls blood sugar.

Time-restricted feeding (TRF) or early meal timing improves metabolic health (weight loss, insulin sensitivity, glucose control) by aligning peripheral tissue clocks with feeding rhythms, whereas mistimed feeding (eating during the inactive phase) causes circadian misalignment and metabolic dysfunction.

Align your eating window with your active hours. Prioritize eating the majority of your calories earlier in the day (e.g., breakfast and lunch) and finish eating several hours before bedtime. This extends your overnight fast and aligns your peripheral metabolic clocks with your feeding, improving insulin sensitivity and weight management. Avoid late-night snacking, especially high-carb meals, as this causes circadian misalignment and metabolic dysfunction regardless of total calories.

Oral supplementation with beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate (HMB) increases plasma concentrations to levels sufficient to activate mTORC1 and stimulate protein synthesis, whereas endogenous conversion from oral leucine fails to reach these effective thresholds.

If your goal is maximizing muscle protein synthesis via the mTORC1 pathway, direct HMB supplementation is more effective than relying on your body to convert Leucine into HMB. Direct HMB intake raises plasma levels to ~400 µM, while Leucine only raises it to ~10 µM, which is insufficient for significant anabolic effects.

Regular moderate-intensity physical activity improves sleep quality and reduces sleep disorders (e.g., insomnia) in adults, with benefits observed across age groups including children and the elderly.

Aim for 30 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise, three times a week. This is the most effective dose for improving sleep quality and managing insomnia. If you are short on time, even 10 minutes of light morning exercise can provide benefits. Avoid high-intensity exercise within 3 hours of bedtime, as it may disrupt sleep.

Caffeine improves 10-km cycling time by 4.8-6.8% in athletes with the CYP1A2 AA genotype (fast metabolizers), but impairs performance by 13.7% in those with the CC genotype (slow metabolizers).

If you use caffeine for endurance sports, your CYP1A2 genotype matters. Fast metabolizers (AA) benefit from 2-4 mg/kg, seeing 5-7% performance gains. Slow metabolizers (CC) should avoid high doses (4 mg/kg) as it can worsen performance by nearly 14%. If you suspect caffeine hurts your performance, genetic testing or a self-experiment comparing placebo vs. caffeine is recommended before committing to a regimen.

Animal-derived proteins (dairy, meat) elicit a superior postprandial muscle protein synthesis response in older adults compared to plant-based proteins (soya, wheat) due to higher digestibility, superior essential amino acid profiles (specifically leucine, lysine, methionine), and faster amino acid absorption kinetics.

If you are older and rely on plant proteins, you likely need to eat more of them than you would animal protein to get the same muscle-building benefit. Try combining different plant sources (like rice and peas) to get a complete amino acid profile, or consider adding a small amount of dairy/whey if your diet allows, as it is more efficient at stimulating muscle growth in aging muscles.

Vigorous aerobic exercise improves body composition, cardiorespiratory fitness, and insulin resistance in women with PCOS, whereas resistance training and combined aerobic-resistance interventions show inconsistent or no significant benefits on these specific metabolic markers.

For PCOS management, prioritize vigorous aerobic exercise (like brisk walking, cycling, or swimming) for at least 75-150 minutes per week. This specific modality has the strongest evidence for improving insulin resistance and body composition. Resistance training alone may not provide the same metabolic benefits, so use it as a supplement, not a replacement, for aerobic activity.

Curcumin supplementation significantly reduces fasting blood glucose, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), and body mass index in patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.

If you have Type 2 Diabetes, adding curcumin to your routine may help lower your blood sugar and HbA1c. Look for high-bioavailability forms like nano-curcumin or curcumin paired with piperine, taken daily for at least 8 weeks, while continuing your standard diabetes medications.

GLP-1 receptor agonists (specifically high-dose liraglutide 3.0 mg) produce clinically significant weight loss (5.9 kg/year) by enhancing satiety via hypothalamic stimulation and delaying gastric emptying.

If you have obesity (BMI ≥ 30, or ≥ 27 with health issues), a daily 3.0 mg injection of liraglutide can help you lose 5-6 kg per year by making you feel full faster and keeping you full longer. You must manage potential nausea, which is common, and this is prescribed for long-term use, not just a quick fix.

Combined oral contraceptive pills (COCPs) are recommended as first-line medical treatment for managing hyperandrogenism and regulating menstrual cycles in PCOS.

If lifestyle changes aren't enough to regulate your cycle or manage symptoms like excess hair growth, COCPs are the standard first medical treatment. They help by balancing hormones. Talk to your doctor about using the lowest effective dose to minimize side effects.

Targeted nutritional training (specifically high-carbohydrate or high-volume intake) adapts the gastrointestinal tract by upregulating SGLT1 transporters and accelerating gastric emptying, thereby increasing exogenous carbohydrate oxidation and reducing GI distress during endurance exercise.

Train your gut like you train your legs. If you plan to consume 60-90g of carbs per hour during races, practice this exact intake during long training sessions. Start with lower amounts and gradually increase over 2-3 weeks to upregulate your SGLT1 transporters. This reduces bloating and diarrhea risk while maximizing energy delivery. Do not restrict carbs on training days if you are an endurance athlete.

GIP-GLP-1 co-agonists (e.g., tirzepatide) produce superior weight loss and glycemic control compared to GLP-1 receptor agonists alone in patients with type 2 diabetes and obesity.

For patients with T2DM and obesity, combining GIP and GLP-1 activity in a single weekly injection (like tirzepatide) is more effective for weight loss and blood sugar control than using GLP-1 agonists alone. This works despite GIP being ineffective on its own in diabetic patients, likely due to altered receptor signaling in the combined molecule.

Unimolecular polyagonists (e.g., GLP-1/Glucagon dual agonists) achieve superior weight loss and glycemic control compared to monoagonists or historical single-target therapies by combining anorectic and thermogenic effects.

Modern obesity treatment is shifting from single-target drugs to 'polyagonists' that activate multiple metabolic pathways (like GLP-1 and Glucagon) simultaneously. This approach is more effective than older single-hormone drugs because it combines appetite suppression with increased energy burning, aiming to match the results of bariatric surgery without the surgery itself.

Aerobic exercise training improves systemic glucose homeostasis in individuals with type 2 diabetes by decreasing HbA1c and fasting blood glucose levels.

If you have type 2 diabetes, regular aerobic exercise is a powerful tool to lower your HbA1c and blood sugar. You don't need to spend hours exercising; studies show that walking for just 30 minutes, three times a week, can significantly improve your markers. Start with what you can sustain and gradually increase the duration or intensity.

Resistance exercise training improves systemic glucose homeostasis in individuals with type 2 diabetes by decreasing HbA1c and fasting blood glucose levels.

If you have type 2 diabetes, adding resistance training to your routine can significantly lower your HbA1c and blood sugar. You don't need to lift heavy weights; focus on performing exercises with good form and gradually increasing the difficulty (sets, reps, or resistance). Doing this 2-3 times a week can yield substantial benefits.

Low-carbohydrate high-fat (LCHF) diets produce weight loss and improved cardiovascular risk markers (lower triglycerides, higher HDL, lower blood pressure) that are at least equivalent to, and often superior to, low-fat high-carbohydrate (LFHC) diets, particularly in individuals with insulin resistance or type 2 diabetes.

Adopt a low-carbohydrate high-fat diet by restricting carbohydrates to less than 130g per day (or <26% of calories) and focusing on unprocessed foods like vegetables, meats, and healthy fats. You do not need to count calories; eat until satisfied. Monitor your blood lipids, especially LDL, as responses vary, but expect improvements in weight, blood sugar, and triglycerides, particularly if you have insulin resistance or type 2 diabetes.

Tirzepatide 15 mg once weekly produces significantly greater fat mass reduction and total body weight loss compared to semaglutide 1 mg and placebo in people with type 2 diabetes, primarily driven by fat mass rather than fat-free mass changes.

If you have type 2 diabetes, tirzepatide 15 mg taken once weekly is more effective than semaglutide 1 mg for reducing body fat and total weight. The weight loss comes mainly from fat, preserving muscle mass better than placebo. This suggests that for T2D patients seeking significant fat loss, tirzepatide may be a superior pharmacological option to semaglutide.

Consuming at least 3 grams per day of oat beta-glucan significantly reduces total and LDL cholesterol, with no additional benefit observed at higher doses.

To lower your LDL cholesterol, incorporate oat products providing at least 3 grams of beta-glucan into your daily diet. You do not need to exceed this amount for additional cholesterol benefits, as studies show no extra gain above 3 grams. Focus on consistent daily intake rather than high doses.

Very low-calorie ketogenic diets (VLCKD) induce rapid weight loss primarily through initial natriuresis and diuresis driven by decreased insulin and increased glucagon, followed by sustained loss due to severe caloric restriction and preserved lean mass.

Follow a strict 600-800 calorie daily plan with less than 50g of carbs for 8-12 weeks under medical supervision. You will likely lose weight rapidly due to water loss initially, then fat loss. Take your prescribed vitamins and minerals to avoid side effects like headaches or cramps. This is a short-term intervention to jumpstart weight loss, not a lifelong diet.

GLP-1 agonists (semaglutide and liraglutide) produce significant weight loss (approx. 8-16%) and improve glycemic control in obese patients, particularly those with type 2 diabetes or insulin resistance.

If you have obesity and type 2 diabetes or insulin resistance, GLP-1 agonists like semaglutide are highly effective for weight loss and blood sugar control. Discuss with your doctor if you are a candidate, especially if lifestyle changes alone have not been sufficient after 12 months.

Bupropion-naltrexone combination therapy produces significant weight loss (approx. 6%) by interrupting the cycle of addictive over-eating through synergistic appetite suppression.

If you struggle with addictive eating patterns or intense cravings, bupropion-naltrexone may be a suitable option. It works by suppressing appetite synergistically. Discuss potential side effects like constipation or anxiety with your doctor.

Caffeine supplementation (2-9 mg/kg) taken 1 hour prior to exercise significantly improves both endurance and anaerobic performance by stimulating the central nervous system and increasing serum catecholamines.

Take 2-9 mg of caffeine per kg of body weight about one hour before your workout or race. This is a proven way to boost both endurance and sprint performance. If you are sensitive to caffeine, start at the lower end of the dose range to avoid anxiety or sleep issues.