Browse the evidence

Global Positioning Systems (GPS) and metabolic power calculations tend to underestimate energy expenditure during soccer match-play compared to indirect calorimetry, particularly during recovery phases.

Be cautious when using GPS devices to estimate calorie burn. They often underestimate energy expenditure, especially during rest periods in soccer. Use this data as a rough guide rather than an exact number when planning nutrition.

Tirzepatide slows the rate of eGFR decline in patients with type 2 diabetes, including those with preserved kidney function (eGFR >60 mL/min/1.73 m2) and normoalbuminuria.

Even if your kidney function tests are currently normal, tirzepatide can help protect your kidneys from future decline. Clinical data shows that this medication slows the rate of kidney function loss compared to insulin, regardless of whether you currently have signs of kidney disease. This makes it a valuable preventive tool for long-term kidney health in people with type 2 diabetes.

Oral branched-chain amino acid (BCAA) supplementation provides negligible benefits for athletic performance and body composition in trained athletes, regardless of supplementation duration or dosage.

If you are an athlete, stop spending money on BCAA supplements for performance or muscle gain. The evidence shows they provide negligible benefits over a normal diet. Ensure you are eating enough total protein daily instead. BCAAs might help slightly with muscle soreness after heavy resistance training, but this is not a guaranteed or significant benefit for most people.

Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) surgery restores gut hormone balance by elevating postprandial GLP-1 and PYY levels, which contributes to sustained weight loss and improved glucose homeostasis.

For patients who have undergone Roux-en-Y gastric bypass, the surgery works largely by changing how gut hormones signal fullness (GLP-1 and PYY). This hormonal shift helps maintain weight loss and improves blood sugar control long-term. If surgery is not an option, new combination drug therapies aim to replicate this hormonal effect.

In strength-trained individuals, acute carbohydrate intake does not improve resistance training performance (repetitions to failure or total volume) when compared to a fed state with a 2-5 hour post-prandial window, provided the workout volume is moderate (≤10 sets per muscle group).

If you eat a normal meal 2-5 hours before lifting, you do not need to force-feed yourself carbohydrates right before training to get better reps or strength. Your muscles have enough glycogen. Save the carbs for post-workout or general daily intake. If you train fasted or do extremely high volume (>10 sets/muscle), then carbs may help, but for standard sessions, don't stress about pre-workout carbs.

Long-term carbohydrate manipulation (weeks to months) does not influence strength gains or hypertrophy in strength-trained individuals, provided total caloric and protein intake are adequate.

You do not need to eat a high-carbohydrate diet to build muscle or get strong. Focus on hitting your protein targets and maintaining a caloric surplus (if bulking) or deficit (if cutting). You can choose your carbohydrate intake based on preference, activity level, or metabolic health without sacrificing strength gains.

Higher circulating levels of specific trans fatty acids (t-16:1n9 and t-18:1) are positively associated with an increased risk of incident type 2 diabetes in older adults, but this association is largely explained by their correlation with de novo lipogenesis (DNL) markers rather than a direct causal effect of the trans fats themselves.

Focus on overall dietary quality rather than fixating solely on trans fats. This study suggests that high levels of certain circulating fatty acids, which are linked to how your body produces its own fats (de novo lipogenesis), are associated with higher diabetes risk. Since dietary self-reports didn't show a clear link, prioritizing whole foods, fiber, and healthy fats (like those in fish and nuts) is likely more effective for diabetes prevention than just avoiding processed foods with trans fats.

Adherence to a Western diet for two weeks significantly increases plasma levels of specific fatty acids (myristic, linoelaidic, linoleic, alpha-linoleic, pentadecanoic acid) and urinary acesulfame K, serving as biomarkers for unhealthy eating patterns.

If you consume a Western diet high in processed foods, red meat, and artificial sweeteners, your body reflects this quickly. Within two weeks, levels of specific fatty acids (like myristic and linoelaidic acid) and acesulfame K rise in your blood and urine. This objective change signals that your diet is shifting towards an unhealthy pattern, highlighting the importance of reducing processed foods and artificial sweeteners.

Higher long-term circulating levels of de novo lipogenesis-related fatty acids (palmitic acid 16:0, palmitoleic acid 16:1n-7, and oleic acid 18:1n-9) are associated with increased all-cause, cardiovascular, and non-cardiovascular mortality in older adults, whereas higher levels of stearic acid (18:0) are associated with lower mortality risk.

For older adults, high levels of certain fatty acids in the blood (palmitic, palmitoleic, and oleic acids) signal higher long-term mortality risk, while stearic acid signals lower risk. These levels reflect metabolic processes like de novo lipogenesis, often driven by excess carbohydrate and alcohol intake. Focus on metabolic health markers rather than just total fat intake.

GLP-1 receptor agonists (semaglutide, liraglutide, dulaglutide, exenatide) produce a statistically significant but clinically modest reduction in systolic blood pressure (SBP) compared to placebo, with effects ranging from -1.46 to -3.40 mmHg.

GLP-1 medications (like Ozempic or Wegovy) consistently lower systolic blood pressure by a small but measurable amount (1-3 mmHg). This benefit occurs regardless of whether you have diabetes. It is not a substitute for blood pressure medication, but it is a favorable side effect that supports heart health.

GLP-1 receptor agonists generally do not significantly reduce diastolic blood pressure (DBP), with the exception of exenatide.

Do not expect GLP-1 medications to significantly lower your diastolic (bottom number) blood pressure, unless you are taking exenatide. Most GLP-1s primarily affect systolic pressure.

Selective, long-acting NK2R agonists (e.g., EB1002) reduce body weight and improve insulin sensitivity in obese mice and diabetic macaques by simultaneously increasing energy expenditure and suppressing appetite without causing aversive side effects.

This research identifies a new drug target (NK2R) that could lead to medications for obesity and type 2 diabetes. These drugs work by making your body burn more energy and reducing your appetite, without causing the unpleasant side effects often associated with other weight loss treatments. While promising in animals, this is not yet a human treatment.

Salivary testosterone and cortisol ratios are inconsistent predictors of strength performance and are not practical for regular training regulation due to high variability between individuals and lack of immediate utility.

Do not rely on blood or saliva tests for daily training decisions. They are expensive, invasive, and inconsistent. Instead, use performance metrics like barbell speed or how hard the set felt (RPE) to guide your training.

Increases in multimorbidity and frailty indices over an 8-year period are associated with subsequent poorer cognitive function, reduced physical function (gait speed), and increased mortality risk in adults with type 2 diabetes.

For adults with type 2 diabetes, keeping track of the number of chronic diseases and physical deficits (frailty) is a strong predictor of future cognitive decline, mobility issues, and death. However, simply improving these specific counts through lifestyle changes may not be enough to guarantee better long-term cognitive or survival outcomes, suggesting a need for a broader approach to healthspan.

Higher habitual levels and increases in plasma phospholipid palmitic acid (16:0), 7-hexadecenoic acid (16:1n-9), and vaccenic acid (18:1n-7) are positively associated with an increased risk of incident heart failure in older adults.

For older adults, maintaining healthy metabolic function is crucial for heart health. While this study doesn't prescribe a specific diet, it highlights that high levels of certain fatty acids (16:0, 16:1n-9, 18:1n-7) in the blood are linked to heart failure risk. These fatty acids are produced by the body (de novo lipogenesis) from excess carbohydrates, sugars, and alcohol, rather than just from eating fat. Therefore, managing carbohydrate and sugar intake may help regulate these fatty acid levels and potentially reduce heart failure risk.

In type 2 diabetes patients, maintaining a lower body mass index (BMI) does not provide greater protection against vascular complications and may increase the risk of specific complications like peripheral neuropathy and peripheral arterial disease.

If you have Type 2 Diabetes, do not assume that losing as much weight as possible is the best strategy for your health. This study shows that being too thin (BMI < 21.6) increases your risk of nerve damage (neuropathy) and circulation problems (PAD) just as much as being overweight. Aim for a moderate BMI range (around 23.5–25.2 kg/m2) to minimize vascular risks, rather than pursuing extreme weight loss.

Lorcaserin's high selectivity for the 5-HT2C receptor minimizes the risk of valvulopathy and pulmonary hypertension seen with non-selective serotonergic drugs like fenfluramine.

Lorcaserin is designed to target weight loss pathways specifically, avoiding the heart valve receptors that caused problems with older drugs. Clinical data shows it does not significantly increase the risk of heart valve problems.

Sympathomimetic obesity drugs (phentermine/topiramate, bupropion/naltrexone) increase heart rate and blood pressure, posing a potential cardiovascular risk despite weight loss benefits.

Sympathomimetic weight loss drugs can raise blood pressure and heart rate. If you have hypertension or heart conditions, these drugs may not be suitable, or require close monitoring.

Epicardial adipose tissue volume is a stronger predictor of atrial fibrillation risk than general anthropometric indices like BMI or waist circumference.

Fat stored directly around the heart (epicardial fat) is a major driver of atrial fibrillation in obese people. This risk is higher than what BMI alone suggests. Weight loss reduces this fat and improves heart rhythm.

Bariatric surgery reduces all-cause and cardiovascular mortality and heart failure incidence, but its effect on reducing *incident* atrial fibrillation is not statistically significant.

Bariatric surgery significantly reduces death and heart failure in obese patients, but it does not significantly reduce the risk of *developing* new atrial fibrillation. It is still beneficial for overall heart health.

Bariatric surgery (specifically Roux-en-Y gastric bypass and sleeve gastrectomy) is superior to behavioral and pharmacological interventions for long-term weight loss maintenance because it alters gut hormones and brain reward circuits, reducing compensatory hunger and metabolic adaptation.

Bariatric surgery is currently the most effective long-term intervention for obesity, largely because it biologically reduces hunger and alters food reward. However, it is not a permanent cure; significant weight regain can still occur. It should be viewed as a tool that facilitates weight loss, but long-term success still requires ongoing behavioral and nutritional support.

Obesity is a chronic, relapsing disease driven by a syndemic interaction of macro-systems (climate, globalization, policy) and micro-systems (behavior, environment), rather than solely individual choice.

Stop blaming yourself or others for obesity. Recognize it as a chronic disease shaped by your environment, food systems, and socioeconomic status. Seek medical help and policy changes rather than relying solely on willpower.

Body Mass Index (BMI) is an insufficient and potentially misleading sole diagnostic measure for obesity due to its inability to capture phenotypic heterogeneity and visceral adiposity.

Do not rely on BMI alone to assess your health. Ask your doctor for additional metrics like waist circumference, blood pressure, and blood sugar levels to get a complete picture of your metabolic health.

SGLT2 inhibitors and GLP-1 receptor agonists reduce major cardiovascular events and improve cardiac structure/function through anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, and metabolic mechanisms, independent of glucose lowering.

If you have T2DM and heart disease or risk factors, ask your doctor about SGLT2 inhibitors or GLP-1 RAs. These drugs do more than lower blood sugar; they actively protect your heart, reduce inflammation, and lower the risk of heart failure and death, regardless of your glucose levels.