Browse the evidence

The relationship among cardiovascular disease, chronic kidney disease, and metabolic diseases is recognized as 'cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic (CKM) syndrome'.

Clinicians should consider the interconnectedness of these diseases in treatment.

Specialist clinicians have historically approached cardiovascular, kidney, and metabolic disorders as separate diseases.

Clinicians may need to reconsider their treatment strategies to integrate care for CKM syndrome.

No significant heterogeneity of treatment effects was found by age, race, ethnicity, baseline BMI, or baseline HbA1c.

GLP-1 receptor agonists may be effective regardless of age, race, ethnicity, BMI, or HbA1c levels.

GLP-1RAs can induce gastric food retention, increasing the risk for pulmonary aspiration during anesthesia.

Clinicians should consider the risk of pulmonary aspiration when using GLP-1RAs in patients undergoing anesthesia.

Leptin receptor deficiency in db/db mice abolished the weight reduction effect of MPDA@TZP via iWAT local injection compared to that in DIO mice.

Leptin receptor status should be considered when evaluating treatment efficacy for obesity.

Anti-obesity vaccines are primarily in preclinical to Phase II stages, with candidates like ghrelin vaccines showing up to 15% reduced weight gain in preclinical models.

Ghrelin vaccines may be a promising avenue for reducing weight gain in future therapies.

Somatostatin vaccines achieved 10–13% weight loss in mice.

Somatostatin vaccines may provide a viable option for weight loss in future treatments.

Amylin receptor activation has emerged as a promising drug target for the treatment of diabetes and obesity.

Practitioners should consider amylin receptor activators as a potential treatment option for obesity and diabetes.

SGLT2i sind etabliert zur Reduktion von Herzinsuffizienzhospitalisierungen und Nierenendpunkten über das gesamte Herzinsuffizienzspektrum.

Clinicians should utilize SGLT2 inhibitors for managing heart failure and kidney disease.

The EndoCompass project identifies strategic research priorities in endocrine science to address critical hormone-related health challenges.

Practitioners should focus on the identified research priorities to improve hormone health.

Current evidence does not support a single dominant mechanism for the efficacy of GLP-1 receptor agonists.

Practitioners should consider multiple factors influencing the effectiveness of GLP-1 receptor agonists.

The DRL model decreased the time-to-therapeutic-dose by 20% in simulations.

Using a DRL agent can expedite achieving therapeutic doses for patients.

Human hypothalamic melanocortin neurons (POMC and AgRP) exhibit significant transcriptomic and receptor-expression differences compared to mice, including species-specific GPCR profiles that directly impact the mechanism and efficacy of current obesity therapies.

Current obesity treatments like semaglutide and tirzepatide target the hypothalamus, but their exact molecular mechanisms in humans may differ from what we learned from mouse studies. This map reveals that human POMC neurons express different receptors (like CALCR) than mouse POMC neurons. This means drug developers must account for these human-specific differences to improve efficacy and reduce side effects, rather than relying solely on rodent data.

SGLT2 inhibitors reduce the risk of heart failure hospitalization and cardiovascular death in patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), regardless of diabetes status.

If you have heart failure, especially with reduced ejection fraction, ask your doctor about SGLT2 inhibitors like empagliflozin or dapagliflozin. These drugs help your heart pump better and reduce hospitalizations, even if you don't have diabetes.

A once-weekly synthetic semaglutide formulation (test drug) provides weight loss efficacy and safety comparable to the innovator semaglutide (Wegovy) in Indian adults with obesity over a 24-week period.

If you are an adult in India with obesity who has struggled to lose weight through diet and exercise alone, this study shows that a once-weekly synthetic semaglutide injection works just as well as the brand-name version (Wegovy) over 24 weeks. You can expect to lose about 14-15% of your body weight if you follow the dose-titration schedule (starting low and increasing every 4 weeks) alongside a 500-calorie daily deficit and 150 minutes of weekly exercise. While you may experience common side effects like nausea or constipation, they are generally mild and manageable. This option may be more affordable than the brand name, making it a viable long-term management tool.

Tirzepatide produces significantly greater weight loss than semaglutide in adults with obesity or overweight, with the magnitude of loss increasing with higher doses (>10 mg) and longer treatment durations (>6 months).

If you are using semaglutide and not achieving your weight loss goals, switching to tirzepatide (particularly at doses above 10 mg and continuing for more than 6 months) is likely to result in significantly greater weight loss. The data supports tirzepatide as a more potent option for reducing body weight compared to semaglutide.

Weekly administration of semaglutide at 2.4 mg induces significant weight loss (mean 14.9%) and improves glycemic control (HbA1c < 7.0% in 57-74% of patients) in adults with obesity or type 2 diabetes, with effects proportional to dose and duration.

If you have obesity or type 2 diabetes, weekly semaglutide (2.4 mg for weight loss, 1-1.0 mg for diabetes) is a highly effective treatment that can lead to significant weight loss (up to 15%) and better blood sugar control. While nausea and vomiting are common side effects, they are usually mild and temporary, and weight loss often occurs regardless of whether you experience them. An oral version is also available if you prefer to avoid injections. Discuss this with your doctor to see if it's right for you.

Tirzepatide produces significantly greater weight loss than semaglutide in overweight and obese adults, with a standardized mean difference of 0.75 favoring tirzepatide.

If you are choosing between tirzepatide and semaglutide for weight loss, current direct comparative evidence suggests tirzepatide may lead to greater weight reduction. This benefit comes with a dual-hormone mechanism (GIP/GLP-1) and requires weekly injections. You should expect potential gastrointestinal side effects during dose increases, which are usually manageable. Combining the medication with diet and exercise will likely enhance results.

Tirzepatide significantly increases the odds of achieving clinically meaningful weight loss (≥10% body weight reduction) compared to semaglutide.

A key benefit of tirzepatide over semaglutide is the increased likelihood of losing 10% or more of your body weight, a threshold often associated with significant health improvements. This makes tirzepatide a potentially more effective option if your primary goal is substantial weight reduction. Discuss with your provider whether this higher efficacy profile aligns with your health goals.

GLP-1 receptor agonists (e.g., liraglutide) produce significant weight loss (mean 8.4 kg over 56 weeks) by slowing gastric emptying and activating central satiety pathways, with 33.1% of patients achieving >10% body weight loss.

If you have obesity (BMI > 30, or > 27 with health issues), ask your doctor about GLP-1 agonists like liraglutide. This medication, taken daily, has been shown in clinical trials to help patients lose an average of 8.4 kg over a year, with many losing over 10% of their body weight. It works by slowing digestion and signaling fullness to your brain.

GLP-1 receptor agonists (semaglutide, tirzepatide, liraglutide) produce significant weight loss (6–30%+ TBWL) and improve fertility outcomes (spontaneous conception, IVF pregnancy rates) in women with obesity and PCOS when used in the preconception period.

If you have obesity and are trying to conceive, GLP-1 medications (like Wegovy or Zepbound) are highly effective for weight loss and improving fertility, especially if you have PCOS. You must stop taking them 2 months before you try to conceive to ensure the drug is out of your system. Work with your doctor to manage side effects and costs.

Dual GLP-1/GIP receptor agonists (e.g., tirzepatide) produce significantly greater weight loss and glycemic control than selective GLP-1 receptor agonists by synergistically targeting both incretin pathways.

If you have T2DM or obesity, dual GLP-1/GIP agonists like tirzepatide are currently the most effective pharmacological option for weight loss and blood sugar control, outperforming older GLP-1 drugs. They are taken as a once-weekly injection. Discuss with your doctor if this advanced therapy is appropriate for your specific health profile.

Multi-receptor incretin drugs (Tirzepatide, Retatrutide, Mazdutide, Survodutide) produce substantial weight loss (>8kg) and glycemic control (HbA1c reduction >1%) in adults with overweight/obesity, with non-diabetic populations showing more pronounced effects than those with type 2 diabetes.

If you have overweight or obesity, multi-receptor incretin drugs like Tirzepatide or Retatrutide are highly effective for significant weight loss (often >10kg) and improving blood sugar control. These benefits are even more pronounced if you do not have type 2 diabetes. While gastrointestinal side effects are common, serious safety risks are not significantly higher than placebo. Consult a healthcare provider to determine if these medications are appropriate for your specific health profile.

Achieving early weight loss of ≥10% body weight in newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes significantly increases the likelihood of diabetes remission and sustains glycaemic improvements compared to losing <10%.

For newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes, aiming for a 10% body weight loss within the first five years is a critical threshold. This specific magnitude of loss is strongly associated with a 4-fold increase in the chance of achieving diabetes remission and sustained lower HbA1c levels compared to smaller weight losses.