Browse the evidence

Replacing saturated fatty acids with unsaturated fatty acids (specifically cis-PUFAs or cis-MUFAs) significantly decreases total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol levels.

To lower LDL cholesterol, replace saturated fats with unsaturated fats. Substituting just 1% of your daily energy from saturated fat with polyunsaturated fat (like oils from nuts/seeds/fish) can lower LDL by ~2 mg/dl.

Adherence to healthy dietary patterns, specifically increasing intake of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, fish, and legumes while limiting salt, saturated fats, trans fats, and processed meats, significantly reduces cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality.

Eat more plants, fish, and whole grains. Eat less salt, bad fats, and processed meats. This is the foundation of heart health.

Specific dietary models, namely the Mediterranean diet and the DASH (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension) diet, are effective for both primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular diseases.

Adopt either the Mediterranean or DASH dietary pattern. Focus on plant-based foods, healthy fats, and lean proteins.

Adherence to a Mediterranean diet reduces pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, CRP) and improves gut microbiota composition, leading to weight loss and reduced systemic inflammation even without caloric restriction.

Adopting a Mediterranean-style diet—rich in vegetables, fruits, whole grains, and olive oil—can reduce inflammation and promote modest weight loss, even if you don't strictly count calories. Focus on food quality and gut health.

Replacing saturated fatty acids (SFA) with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), specifically linoleic acid (LA) found in seed oils, reduces cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk and is safe for long-term consumption.

Follow established dietary guidelines: limit saturated fats (like butter and lard) and replace them with unsaturated fats, including seed oils (like soybean, corn, or canola oil), to support heart health. The scientific consensus supports the safety and benefit of these oils.

Adherence to a diet high in fruit, vegetables, nuts, legumes, fish, and whole-fat dairy is associated with significantly lower all-cause mortality and cardiovascular disease risk across diverse global populations, particularly in lower-income countries.

Focus your daily diet on increasing the intake of six specific food groups: fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts, fish, and whole-fat dairy. Aim to consume these foods in amounts that exceed the median intake of your local population. This pattern is associated with a 30% lower risk of death and an 18% lower risk of cardiovascular events. This is particularly impactful in lower-income regions where these foods are less commonly consumed.

Replacing saturated fatty acids (SFA) with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) or monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) results in the greatest reduction in LDL cholesterol and apoB, whereas replacing SFA with carbohydrates yields only modest apoB lowering.

To lower your LDL cholesterol, replace saturated fats (found in red meat, full-fat dairy, and tropical oils) with unsaturated fats. Prioritize polyunsaturated fats (found in fatty fish, walnuts, and vegetable oils) and monounsaturated fats (found in olive oil and avocados). Avoid replacing these fats with refined carbohydrates like white bread or sugar, as this is less effective for lowering cholesterol.

The thermic effect of food (TEF) varies significantly by macronutrient composition, with protein eliciting a thermic effect at least three times higher than isocaloric carbohydrates, while fat elicits a much lower thermic effect.

Eating protein costs more energy to digest than carbs or fat. Prioritizing protein in your diet can slightly increase your daily energy expenditure through the thermic effect of food.

Switching from saturated and trans fats to unsaturated fats (MUFAs and PUFAs) in the diet causally reduces plasma LDL particle concentration, thereby reducing the risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD).

To lower your risk of heart disease, focus on swapping the types of fat you eat. Replace saturated fats (found in butter, fatty meats, full-fat dairy) and trans fats with unsaturated fats (found in olive oil, nuts, seeds, and fatty fish). This substitution lowers LDL cholesterol, which is a primary driver of heart disease. You don't need to eliminate fat; just choose higher-quality sources.

Carbohydrate-restricted diets (≤45% energy) significantly improve cardiovascular health by reducing triglycerides, blood pressure, and inflammatory markers, despite modest increases in LDL and total cholesterol.

Adopting a diet with less than 45% of calories from carbs improves heart health markers like blood pressure and triglycerides. Even if your LDL cholesterol rises slightly, your overall cardiovascular risk likely decreases because your triglycerides drop, inflammation goes down, and your cholesterol ratios improve. This is especially true if you replace carbs with a mix of fats and proteins.

Adherence to a low-carbohydrate diet (LCD) results in significantly greater reductions in body mass index (BMI), total body weight, and body fat percentage compared to a low-fat diet (LFD).

If you are trying to lose weight, a low-carbohydrate diet (30-130g carbs/day) is likely to produce slightly better results in BMI, total weight, and body fat percentage than a low-fat diet. This holds true across various populations, including those with type 2 diabetes or metabolic syndrome. Note that the absolute difference in fat mass (kg) and waist circumference was not significantly different between the two diets in the overall analysis.

Macronutrient composition (low-carb vs. low-fat) has no significant difference on weight loss outcomes when total caloric intake and adherence are controlled.

Don't obsess over whether you should be low-carb or low-fat. The most important factor is that you eat fewer calories than you burn. You can achieve this with almost any dietary pattern (Mediterranean, low-carb, low-fat) as long as you stick to it and maintain a calorie deficit.

High-fat and fasting diets increase lipid oxidation (LIPOX) and lower respiratory quotient (RQ), which is directly associated with increased circulating acylcarnitines and decreased glycerophospholipids, indicating a coordinated metabolic shift toward mitochondrial beta-oxidation.

When you eat a high-fat or fasted state, your body shifts to burning fat for fuel. This shift is measurable through specific blood markers (acylcarnitines) and breathing ratios (RQ). If you want to increase fat oxidation, reducing carbohydrate intake or fasting are effective strategies.

Macronutrient composition (carbohydrate vs fat vs protein ratios) does not significantly impact weight loss outcomes when total caloric intake is controlled, provided the diet is sustainable.

You do not need to follow a specific 'low-carb' or 'low-fat' diet to lose weight. Studies show that when calories are equal, the source of those calories (carbs vs fat vs protein) matters less for weight loss than the total amount. Focus on finding a dietary pattern you enjoy and can stick with long-term.

Ketogenic diets (≤10% carbs) produce greater weight loss but also greater increases in LDL and total cholesterol compared to moderate-carb diets (26-45% carbs).

If you choose a strict ketogenic diet (under 10% carbs), expect greater weight loss but also a significant rise in LDL and total cholesterol. If you want a balance of weight loss and heart health markers, a moderate-carb diet (26-45% carbs) might be a better choice.

There is no significant difference in the reduction of absolute fat mass (kg) or waist circumference between low-carbohydrate and low-fat diets.

While LCDs may lower BMI and body fat percentage more than LFDs, they do not necessarily reduce absolute fat mass (kg) or waist circumference more effectively. If waist circumference is your primary goal, either diet may be equally effective.

Genotype-based personalization of macronutrient intake (high-fat vs. high-carbohydrate) does not result in greater weight loss compared to genotype-discordant diets in individuals with overweight or obesity.

If you are overweight or obese, matching your diet to your genetic profile (e.g., high-fat vs. high-carb) does not provide a weight loss advantage over a diet that doesn't match your profile. Focus on sustainable caloric restriction and macronutrient choices you can maintain, as genetic testing for diet response currently offers no predictive benefit for weight loss magnitude.

Obesity can result from an intrinsic metabolic disorder that shifts fuel partitioning toward storage and sequestration in adipose tissue, causing 'internal starvation' and compensatory hyperphagia, independent of excessive energy intake.

This paper argues that for some individuals, obesity is driven by a biological defect in how the body handles fuel (partitioning), not just by eating too much. This biological defect traps energy in fat cells, causing the body to feel starved and triggering hunger. While this explains specific pathological cases in animal models, it suggests that for some humans, treating obesity requires addressing these underlying metabolic shifts rather than just focusing on calorie restriction.

Athletes should consume 1.4–2.0 g of protein per kg of body weight per day to optimize lean body mass and strength during resistance training.

If you train with weights, aim for 1.4 to 2.0 grams of protein for every kilogram of your body weight each day. This range is the scientific standard for building and keeping muscle while you train hard.

In overweight/obese adults, a low-carbohydrate diet (26% of calories) without calorie restriction produces significantly greater weight loss and BMI reduction than a calorie-restricted diet (1200-1500 kcal) with standard carbohydrate intake (55-65%).

If you are overweight or obese, try reducing your carbohydrate intake to about 26% of your total calories (roughly 50-60g of carbs per day for many adults) without worrying about counting calories. Eat more fat and protein. You do not need to restrict your total energy intake to lose weight effectively; in fact, you may eat more calories than on a standard low-calorie diet and still lose more weight. This approach was shown to be superior to standard calorie restriction over 12 weeks.

For individuals performing resistance training, muscle strength increases linearly with total protein intake up to 1.5 g/kg body weight per day, with no additional benefit from higher intakes.

If you lift weights, aim for 1.5 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight daily. This is the sweet spot for maximizing strength gains. Eating more than this does not provide additional strength benefits.

In overweight and obese adults, low-carbohydrate diets (LCD) produce greater reductions in triglycerides, diastolic blood pressure, and body weight, along with greater increases in HDL cholesterol, compared to low-fat diets (LFD) over a duration of 6 to 23 months.

If you are overweight or obese, switching to a diet with less than 40% of your calories from carbohydrates (instead of less than 30% from fat) is likely to help you lose more weight, lower your triglycerides, raise your 'good' HDL cholesterol, and lower your diastolic blood pressure over the next 6-23 months. However, this benefit disappears after 24 months, where both diets are equally effective.

Adoption of the DASH diet or similar healthy dietary patterns (high in fruits, vegetables, low-fat dairy, low in saturated fat/salt) reduces blood pressure and is recommended as a first-line intervention for hypertension management.

Adopt a DASH-style diet: eat more fruits, vegetables, and low-fat dairy, and reduce saturated fats and salt. This is a proven, first-line strategy to lower blood pressure. If cost or access is a barrier, focus on affordable staples like beans, rice, and seasonal produce, and seek guidance from healthcare providers on local resources.

Athletes engaged in moderate to high intensity training lasting over 12 hours per week should consume 8-10 g of carbohydrates per kg of body weight daily to maximize glycogen storage and performance.

If you train hard for more than 12 hours a week, aim for 8 to 10 grams of carbs for every kilogram of your body weight each day. If you struggle to eat that much food, switch to denser carb sources like sports drinks or gels instead of just eating large amounts of vegetables or grains.