Browse the evidence

Low circulating glycine levels are consistently associated with obesity, type 2 diabetes, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, and prospective studies indicate that decreased plasma glycine is a strong predictive factor for incident glucose intolerance and type 2 diabetes.

If you have obesity or type 2 diabetes, your blood glycine levels are likely lower than average, which is linked to higher insulin resistance. While eating more glycine-rich foods (like vegetable proteins) might help, the root cause involves how your body makes and uses glycine, influenced by your gut bacteria. Focus on overall metabolic health improvements (weight loss, exercise) which are associated with improved glycine concentrations.

Consuming up to one egg per day is not associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease or stroke in the general population.

You can safely eat up to one egg a day without increasing your risk of heart disease or stroke. This applies to the general population. If you have diabetes, the data suggests a potential increased risk for heart disease, so you should consult your doctor for personalized advice.

Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA) is highly prevalent in obese women with PCOS and contributes to insulin resistance; screening and treatment (e.g., CPAP) are recommended.

Obese women with PCOS should be screened annually for OSA, as it is common and worsens insulin resistance. Treatment with CPAP can help alleviate insulin resistance.

Polyphenol-rich functional foods (green tea, yerba mate, coffee) improve insulin sensitivity, reduce oxidative stress, and lower fasting glucose.

Incorporate polyphenol-rich beverages like green tea and yerba mate into your daily routine. Clinical trials show these can significantly lower fasting glucose and improve antioxidant capacity.

Transitioning to higher education is associated with significant weight gain (avg 2.7 kg) driven by decreased sport participation and increased leisure internet use.

If you are starting college, expect to gain weight unless you actively maintain your sport participation and limit leisure internet use. Focus on keeping your exercise habits from high school.

Increased fruit and vegetable intake is protective against weight gain, but this effect is specific to female students.

For female students, increasing fruit and vegetable intake can help prevent weight gain. For males, this specific dietary change did not show a protective effect against weight gain in this study.

Increased alcohol consumption contributes to weight gain specifically in male students.

Male students should be aware that increased alcohol consumption is linked to weight gain. Female students in this study did not show this specific link.

Acute growth hormone (GH) response to resistance exercise increases in older women after 21 weeks of strength training, while basal hormone levels remain unchanged.

You don't need to worry about low basal hormones; your body's acute response to exercise can improve with training. Consistent resistance training is the key lever.

Adult humans possess functional brown adipose tissue (BAT) capable of thermogenesis, and increasing its mass or activity through pharmacological or nutritional interventions can increase energy expenditure to treat obesity and diabetes.

Your body likely has brown fat that can burn calories, especially if you are leaner and younger. While you cannot directly 'turn it on' with a simple lifestyle hack yet, understanding that cold exposure and potentially certain diets (like ketogenic) may stimulate it offers a new perspective on metabolic health. Future treatments may target this tissue directly.

The 10,12 CLA isomer is primarily responsible for the fat-loss effects in animal models but causes insulin resistance in humans, whereas the 9,11 isomer may have different metabolic effects.

Most CLA supplements contain a mix of isomers, but the 10,12 isomer is the one that reduces fat in animals but causes insulin resistance in humans. If you take CLA, you are likely consuming this isomer, which may harm your metabolic health.

Short habitual sleep duration (≤6 hours) and specific insomnia symptoms (sleep continuity disturbance, early-morning awakening, and combined symptoms) significantly increase the incidence of hypertension in adults.

Prioritize consistent sleep duration of 7-8 hours and address sleep maintenance issues (waking up during the night) or early morning awakenings, as these specific patterns are linked to higher blood pressure risk. While difficulty falling asleep (DFA) was not significantly linked in this analysis, chronic sleep fragmentation (SCD) and early awakening (EMA) are. If you have trouble staying asleep or waking up too early, discuss this with your doctor as part of hypertension prevention.

Endurance training increases intramyocellular lipid (IMCL) content, which serves as a readily available energy source for mitochondrial oxidation during prolonged exercise.

If you engage in endurance exercise, your muscles will store more fat to use as fuel. This is a normal and beneficial adaptation, not a sign of poor health.

Increased energy intake, driven by the availability of cheap, energy-dense, ultra-processed foods, is the primary driver of the obesity epidemic, outweighing the contribution of reduced physical activity.

Focus on reducing caloric intake, particularly from ultra-processed, energy-dense foods, as this is the primary driver of obesity. While exercise is beneficial for health, its impact on weight management is secondary to dietary changes in the current food environment.

Red meat consumption is causally associated with an increased risk of colon and prostate cancer, whereas total dietary fat intake is not significantly associated with colon cancer risk.

To reduce cancer risk, prioritize reducing red meat consumption over simply lowering total fat intake. Evidence suggests red meat contains components linked to colon and prostate cancer risk that are distinct from fat content.

Higher intake of fruits and vegetables provides a protective effect against lung cancer, likely mediated by phytochemicals such as carotenoids, but this protection does not extend to preformed vitamin A.

Increase consumption of fruits and vegetables to boost carotenoid intake, which is strongly associated with reduced lung cancer risk. Do not rely on preformed vitamin A supplements for this protection.

Energy restriction and reduced growth rates (indicated by shorter stature) are strongly associated with reduced breast cancer incidence, whereas total dietary fat intake is not significantly associated with breast cancer risk in prospective studies.

Focus on maintaining a healthy weight and avoiding excessive energy intake, especially during growth and development, as these factors are strongly linked to reduced breast cancer risk. Reducing total dietary fat alone is not supported by prospective data as a primary prevention strategy.

Testosterone replacement therapy reverses glucocorticoid-induced bone loss and muscle wasting in hypogonadal men, increasing lumbar spine bone density by 5.0% and restoring lean body mass.

If you are a man on long-term steroids (like for asthma) and have low testosterone, testosterone replacement therapy can significantly strengthen your bones and restore muscle mass. The treatment involves monthly injections and is generally well-tolerated, though it may lower 'good' cholesterol (HDL). The benefits for bone health and muscle mass often outweigh the risks for men with serious conditions requiring steroids.

Low testosterone in men with type 2 diabetes and obesity is associated with increased cardiovascular disease risk and erectile dysfunction, mediated by visceral adiposity and proinflammatory cytokines.

If you have type 2 diabetes and are obese, getting your testosterone checked is important. Low levels are linked to higher heart disease risk and sexual dysfunction. Treatment with testosterone replacement may help, but it must be done carefully with monitoring for side effects, especially in older men.

Testosterone replacement therapy improves insulin sensitivity, reduces central adiposity, and improves sexual function in hypogonadal men with type 2 diabetes or metabolic syndrome.

If you have type 2 diabetes and low testosterone, TRT can improve your insulin sensitivity, reduce belly fat, and boost your sex drive and erectile function. It should be part of a broader plan including diet and exercise, and requires careful monitoring by a doctor.

Bariatric surgery (specifically gastric bypass) significantly increases the likelihood of remission for hypertension and type 2 diabetes compared to specialized medical treatment, while simultaneously increasing the risk of new-onset depression, opioid use, and gastrointestinal complications.

If you have severe obesity (BMI ≥40 or ≥35 with health issues), bariatric surgery (specifically gastric bypass) is significantly more effective than lifestyle/medical treatment alone for reversing high blood pressure and type 2 diabetes. However, this benefit comes with a higher risk of mental health challenges (like new-onset depression), increased opioid prescriptions, and the need for future gastrointestinal surgeries. The decision requires a careful trade-off between metabolic remission and surgical/mental health risks.

A semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) with 190 items provides a reproducible and reasonably valid measure of long-term dietary intake for epidemiological studies in Greek populations.

For large-scale health studies, a well-designed food frequency questionnaire is a valid and reliable tool for assessing long-term dietary habits, especially when validated against biochemical markers. It is more practical and less burdensome than daily diet records for large cohorts.

Post-exercise blood lactate concentration decreases significantly with age, making fixed high-lactate thresholds (e.g., ≥ 8.0 mmol/L) inappropriate for older adults.

Do not judge an older adult's effort by the same lactate numbers used for young athletes. An 80-year-old reaching 6-7 mmol/L may have worked as hard as a 20-year-old reaching 12 mmol/L. Adjust your expectations for metabolic markers based on age.

Women exhibit significantly lower post-exercise blood lactate concentrations than men during maximal exercise, despite achieving similar relative exertion (Borg Scale) and RER.

When assessing women, do not use the same blood lactate threshold (e.g., 8.0 mmol/L) as men. Women naturally produce ~18% less lactate at max effort. Use sex-specific thresholds (e.g., ≥ 7.0 mmol/L for women <50, ≥ 5.0 for 50-64, ≥ 3.5 for ≥65) to accurately capture their VO2max.

Obesity superimposed on aging exacerbates chronic low-grade inflammation (inflammaging), which drives insulin resistance and increases the risk of age-related diseases such as type-2 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, and cognitive impairment.

If you are older and carrying extra weight, your body is likely in a state of chronic, low-grade inflammation that increases your risk for diabetes, heart disease, and cognitive decline. This isn't just about appearance; it's a biological process. Managing this risk involves addressing the underlying inflammation and metabolic health, not just weight loss alone.