Browse the evidence

Current and former tobacco smoking is associated with significantly increased odds of developing incident chronic kidney disease (CKD).

Do not smoke, and if you do, quit. Both current and former smoking are associated with an increased risk of developing kidney disease. Public health messages should support smoking cessation to prevent CKD.

Moderate alcohol consumption is associated with a reduced risk of developing incident chronic kidney disease (CKD) compared to no or low consumption.

If you drink alcohol, do so in moderation. The study suggests that moderate consumption is associated with a reduced risk of CKD compared to no consumption. However, heavy drinking may be harmful. Follow public health guidelines for alcohol consumption.

Public information campaigns and nutrition education policies in Europe primarily increase knowledge and awareness but fail to produce significant, sustained changes in actual dietary intake or health outcomes.

Simply telling people to eat healthier through campaigns or labels is rarely enough to change their diet long-term. To see real results, policies need to go beyond information and alter the environment (e.g., making healthy food cheaper or more available) or target specific behavioral triggers, as knowledge alone does not overcome ingrained habits.

Insomnia imposes a massive economic burden on society, estimated at over $77 billion per year in the US, driven by lost productivity, accidents, and absenteeism.

Insomnia is not just a personal issue; it has a massive economic impact. Treating insomnia effectively can reduce workplace accidents and lost productivity, benefiting both the individual and society.

Acculturation to high-income host cultures is associated with increased BMI and obesity risk in migrants from low- or middle-income countries, primarily driven by rapid nutritional transition toward obesogenic diets.

For migrants moving to high-income countries, be aware that adopting the local lifestyle often includes adopting local dietary habits that may lead to weight gain. This is not inevitable; actively maintaining traditional dietary practices and social support networks (enculturation) can protect against this trend. Additionally, leverage the host culture's emphasis on fitness and body image if it aligns with your goals, as some studies show acculturated women may have lower BMI due to these counteracting social norms.

Transitioning to telehealth for eating disorder treatment during lockdown was associated with perceived lower quality of care compared to face-to-face interactions, though continuity of care was maintained for many.

If you are receiving telehealth for an eating disorder, recognize that it may feel less effective than in-person care. Communicate this to your provider. They can adapt strategies to make remote sessions more effective, but you must be proactive in discussing what is and isn't working.

Restricting food marketing to children, particularly on television and in schools, reduces children's exposure to unhealthy food advertisements.

For policymakers: Implement comprehensive marketing restrictions targeting children, focusing on TV, schools, and digital media. Define 'unhealthy' foods based on nutrient profiling and ban their marketing to minors. This reduces exposure to persuasive messaging that drives unhealthy consumption.

Cash incentives for physical activity via wearables may be less effective than charity incentives or no incentives, and can even reduce physical activity compared to control groups.

Be cautious with cash-based fitness challenges. Evidence suggests they may be less effective than charity-based incentives or no incentives, and can even reduce activity levels. Focus on intrinsic motivation or social/charitable rewards instead.

Government-imposed public life restrictions and lockdowns during the COVID-19 pandemic caused a substantial, global decrease in physical activity levels, specifically moderate-to-vigorous (MVPA) and vigorous physical activity (VPA).

If you are facing lockdowns or facility closures, expect your activity levels to drop significantly. Proactively plan home-based or outdoor activities to mitigate this loss, as the default response to restrictions is a ~40% drop in exercise volume.

Pandemic-related lockdowns led to a significant decrease in compliance with WHO physical activity guidelines, dropping from 80.9% to 62.5% of the population.

Check if you are still meeting the 150 minutes of moderate or 75 minutes of vigorous activity per week. Lockdowns make this harder, so you need to be intentional about scheduling movement.

Social media influencers promote a cognitive association between body perfection (low body fat, visible musculature) and happiness/health, driving followers to adopt restrictive dieting and exercise behaviors to achieve this ideal.

Be critical of fitness influencers on Instagram. Recognize that their content is often designed to sell products (supplements, sportswear) and create a dependency on their lifestyle advice. If you feel inadequate after viewing their posts, remember that their images are curated and edited. Seek health advice from certified professionals who do not have a financial stake in selling you specific products.

There is insufficient evidence to set specific, quantified (time-based) recommendations for total sedentary time.

Do not worry about hitting a specific number of sitting hours. Instead, focus on the general principle of limiting sedentary time and breaking up long periods of sitting with light movement. The exact threshold varies by individual and health outcome.

There is a tentative but consistent increase in occasional and chronic insomnia-related symptoms among working-aged employees in Finland over the last 10 years of the study period, despite stable sleep medication usage rates.

If you are working and feeling more tired or having sleep issues, you are not alone; this is a documented trend in your demographic. However, this does not mean you need medication, as usage rates are stable. Focus on managing work stress and lifestyle factors rather than assuming you need pharmaceutical intervention.

Current standardized assessment of muscle quality is lacking, with no single ideal endpoint measure, necessitating consensus on definitions and standardized imaging or functional tests.

There is currently no single, standardized, widely available clinical test for 'muscle quality.' Clinicians use proxies like grip strength and gait speed. Research is ongoing to standardize imaging (ultrasound, MRI) for routine use. Patients should be aware that 'muscle quality' is a distinct concept from 'muscle mass' and may require specialized assessment.

Higher levels of neuroticism are generally associated with increased mortality risk, although some components (healthy neuroticism) may be protective.

While high neuroticism is often linked to shorter lifespan, some aspects like worry can motivate preventive health behaviors. Managing anxiety constructively, rather than suppressing it, may be beneficial for health.

Maternal employment in agriculture is associated with adverse child health outcomes, including higher risks of diarrhea, respiratory disease, and reduced healthcare seeking.

Programs supporting rural women in agriculture must address the time burden of farm work. Providing accessible childcare and healthcare services can help mitigate the negative health impacts on children when mothers are engaged in agricultural labor.

Individuals significantly underestimate their cardiovascular risk and their level of physical activity, demonstrating a disconnect between perceived and actual metrics.

Do not rely on your gut feeling to judge your health risk or activity level. You are likely underestimating your risk and overestimating your activity. Use objective tools like smartphone sensors or medical checkups to get a true picture of your cardiovascular health.

Mandatory calorie menu labeling on quick-service restaurant menus does not significantly reduce the calories purchased or consumed by consumers in real-world or laboratory settings.

Posting calorie counts on fast-food menus does not reliably lead to healthier choices or lower calorie intake for the average consumer. Policymakers and consumers should not rely on labeling alone to combat obesity; other strategies like education or menu reformulation may be more effective.

Long-term adherence to DASH diet guidelines does not independently reduce the incidence of hypertension or cardiovascular mortality in older women after adjusting for confounding lifestyle factors.

While the DASH diet is recommended for blood pressure control, this study suggests that simply 'eating somewhat healthy' according to DASH guidelines may not be enough to prevent hypertension or heart disease in older women over the long term, especially if other risk factors (like smoking or lack of exercise) are present. To potentially see the benefits seen in clinical trials, one might need to achieve a very high level of strict adherence to the diet, which is difficult in real-world settings.

Breastfeeding is associated with a lower incidence of obesity and better long-term metabolic profiles (e.g., lipid levels, blood pressure) compared to formula feeding.

Breastfeeding is associated with a lower risk of childhood obesity and better metabolic health. If you are able to breastfeed, it provides benefits that extend beyond nutrition, including behavioral feeding patterns that help regulate intake.

Living in neighborhoods with better physical environments (defined by better walking environments and greater availability of healthy foods) is associated with lower body mass index, independent of individual-level socioeconomic factors.

If you live in an area with poor walkability or limited access to healthy food, your BMI may be higher regardless of your personal efforts. To counteract this, you may need to be more intentional about creating your own 'healthy environment' (e.g., planning grocery trips to distant healthy stores, finding alternative exercise spaces) or advocate for local policy changes that improve walkability and food access.

Higher socioeconomic status (SES) is significantly associated with increased odds of overall obesity in urban adults, while longer urban residence is associated with higher odds of hypertension.

In rapidly urbanizing areas, obesity risk is not just a 'poor person's problem' but is strongly linked to higher socioeconomic status and urban lifestyle. Public health interventions should target affluent urban populations for obesity prevention and those with long urban residence for hypertension management, focusing on physical activity and diet quality rather than just food access.

The prevalence of ADHD in obese patients, particularly those with extreme obesity (BMI >= 40), is significantly higher than in the general adult population.

If you have extreme obesity, you are more likely to have ADHD than the general population. Getting evaluated for ADHD might reveal a treatable condition that could help you adhere to your weight loss plan.

Sugar-sweetened beverage taxes are economically justified if they correct for externalities (healthcare costs) and internalities (self-control issues/misinformation), potentially exceeding their costs even if regressive in direct financial impact.

For policymakers: Implement SSB taxes to correct for health externalities and internalities, not just to raise revenue. Target taxes on grams of sugar, not just volume, and consider revenue recycling to benefit low-income communities. The net social benefit likely exceeds the costs.