Browse the evidence

Chronic static stretching exercises produce an overall unclear effect on skeletal muscle hypertrophy in healthy individuals, with a trivial point estimate and a prediction interval ranging from trivial negative to moderate positive effects.

Do not expect static stretching to build significant muscle on its own. While it improves flexibility, its impact on muscle size is negligible for most people. If you do stretch, ensure you are doing it for long durations (e.g., >60s per exercise) and high frequency, but prioritize resistance training for hypertrophy.

Trained individuals experience larger stretching-induced muscle gains compared to recreationally trained or sedentary individuals.

If you are already trained, static stretching may contribute more to muscle growth than it does for beginners or sedentary individuals. However, it is still not a replacement for resistance training.

Faster rates of body mass gain (via larger energy surpluses of 5-15%) primarily increase the rate of fat accumulation rather than augmenting strength or muscle hypertrophy compared to maintenance or moderate surpluses.

If your goal is to maximize muscle and strength gains, you do not need a large caloric surplus. A moderate surplus (approx. 5% above maintenance, leading to ~0.5% body weight gain per 2 weeks) is likely just as effective as a large surplus (15%) for muscle growth, while resulting in significantly less fat gain. Focus on progressive resistance training and adequate protein (>=1.8g/kg) rather than overeating.

Mono- and multireceptor agonists combining proglucagon-derived peptides enhance efficacy in managing obesity, diabetes, and conditions affecting the kidneys, liver, and heart.

New combination therapies that target multiple receptors (e.g., GLP-1/GIP, GLP-1/Glucagon) are showing enhanced efficacy for managing obesity, diabetes, and cardiometabolic conditions. Discuss these advanced options with your healthcare provider if standard treatments are insufficient.

A 1.5-year combined lifestyle intervention (normocaloric diet, exercise, CBT) inducing modest weight loss (~5%) normalizes long-term adiposity hormones (leptin, insulin, adiponectin) without triggering orexigenic short-term appetite signals, thereby avoiding the hormonal drive for weight regain typically seen with severe caloric restriction.

To maintain weight loss without triggering intense hunger, focus on a sustainable, healthy diet rather than severe calorie restriction. Combine this with regular mixed exercise (aerobic and resistance) and behavioral strategies (like CBT) over a long period (1.5 years). This approach normalizes metabolic hormones without activating strong hunger signals, making long-term maintenance more feasible than with crash diets.

A novel rice-based diabetes-specific formula (MFDM) containing physically modified rice flour, fructose, and isomaltulose significantly reduces postprandial glucose and insulin responses compared to a standard non-diabetes formula in adults with prediabetes or early type 2 diabetes, while eliciting similar hormonal (GLP-1, GIP, PYY, ghrelin) and satiety responses to a commercial diabetes-specific formula.

For individuals with prediabetes or early type 2 diabetes, consuming a meal replacement or formula containing physically modified rice flour, fructose, and isomaltulose (like the MFDM studied) can significantly blunt postprandial blood sugar and insulin spikes compared to standard non-diabetic formulas. This effect is comparable to established commercial diabetes-specific formulas, making it a viable, potentially more accessible option for managing post-meal glucose levels.

Viscous fiber supplementation (median dose 8 g/day) leads to modest reductions in body weight and waist circumference in individuals on ad libitum diets, primarily through increased satiety and energy excretion.

If you are not strictly counting calories, adding about 8 grams of viscous fiber daily (found in foods like oats, beans, or supplements) can help modestly reduce body weight and waist size by making you feel fuller and slightly increasing calorie excretion.

Dietary factors such as plant-based foods and specific dietary models possess anti-inflammatory properties and anti-atherogenic potential.

Eat more plant-based foods to reduce inflammation and protect your arteries.

Subtotal body fat percentage is the most important predictor of maximum exercise capacity in adults with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, surpassing traditional metrics like BMI.

If you have Type 2 Diabetes, your body fat percentage is a stronger indicator of your heart health and exercise capacity than your weight or BMI alone. While you can't easily measure body fat at home, understanding that excess fat impacts your fitness more than muscle mass does can motivate you to focus on body composition changes (via diet and exercise) rather than just weight loss.

Higher baseline physical activity engagement during early pregnancy predicts continued moderate physical activity in the third trimester, regardless of BMI or military status.

If you are pregnant and want to stay active, getting started with moderate physical activity early in pregnancy (before 12 weeks) is the best way to ensure you keep doing it later in pregnancy. Your early habits strongly predict your later habits, more so than your weight or job status.

Genetic polymorphisms (SNPs) significantly influence individual variability in fat loss efficiency in response to both dietary interventions and exercise regimens.

If you are struggling with fat loss despite consistent diet and exercise, consider that your genetic profile may influence your efficiency. While you cannot change your DNA, understanding your response patterns (e.g., better response to high-protein vs. low-fat diets) can help tailor your approach for better adherence and results.

Consuming saturated fat from dairy foods (specifically cheese) results in lower total and LDL cholesterol compared to consuming an equivalent amount of saturated fat from butter, due to the protective 'dairy food matrix' (including milk fat globule membrane and protein structure).

If you eat dairy, choose cheese over butter. While both contain saturated fat, the physical structure of cheese (the 'matrix') appears to raise cholesterol less than butter does. Current guidelines focusing only on limiting total saturated fat may inadvertently exclude beneficial foods like cheese.

Saturated fat intake increases LDL cholesterol primarily by increasing larger, less atherogenic LDL particles, whereas high-carbohydrate diets increase smaller, dense, pro-atherogenic LDL particles.

Don't just look at your total LDL cholesterol number. If you eat high-carb, your LDL particles might be small and dense (higher risk). If you eat saturated fat, your LDL particles might be larger (lower risk). Particle size is a better marker of risk than total cholesterol.

Higher socio-economic status (SES) and higher educational attainment are associated with lower absolute and relative intake of energy, carbohydrates, sodium, and saturated fats, but higher intake of trans fats in men and monounsaturated fats (MUFA) in women.

In urban Colombia, lower socioeconomic status and education are linked to higher intake of energy, carbohydrates, sodium, and saturated fats, which increases chronic disease risk. However, higher education in men is also linked to higher trans fat intake, and in women, higher monounsaturated fat intake. Public health policies should target these specific demographic-dietary intersections rather than assuming uniform dietary improvements with wealth or education.

Using Mean Propulsive Velocity (MPV) to adjust resistance training loads at moderate altitude (approx. 2,300m) is a viable method for maintaining training efficacy, as it yields similar relative power improvements and velocity loss patterns compared to sea level, despite higher absolute loads and perceived exertion.

If you are training at moderate altitude (around 2,300m), use a device to measure your bar speed (Mean Propulsive Velocity). Adjust your weights so that your Countermovement Jump bar speed is 1 meter per second. This ensures you are training at the correct intensity for power development, just as you would at sea level. Be aware that you will likely feel more tired (higher RPE) and lift heavier absolute weights, but the relative benefit to your power output will be similar to sea-level training.

A short-term high-fat diet (65% energy from fat) for 5 days reduces large VLDL particles and small HDL particles (HDL-3/4) in men with overweight/obesity, which may be beneficial for cardiovascular health.

A short-term high-fat diet (65% of calories from fat) in sedent overweight men can improve specific lipid subfractions (reducing large VLDL and small HDL) which are linked to lower cardiovascular risk. However, this is a short-term effect in a controlled setting and should not be interpreted as a long-term dietary recommendation without medical supervision.

Athletes who purchase nutritional supplements outside of their athletic department's provided inventory are at significantly higher risk of using non-third-party tested (TPT) supplements compared to those who rely on department-provided products.

If you buy supplements from your school's athletic department, you are statistically much safer regarding contamination risks than if you buy them yourself at a store or online. If you must buy your own, you are at higher risk of using untested products; prioritize finding and ordering from verified third-party tested sources.

Using caffeine supplements is associated with a significantly higher risk of using non-third-party tested supplements compared to other supplement types.

If you use caffeine supplements, you are at the highest risk of using untested products. Be extra vigilant: look for third-party testing logos (NSF, Informed Choice) on caffeine products, especially pre-workouts, as they are frequently adulterated.

Incretin-based pharmacotherapies (GLP-1, GIP, and triple agonists) significantly improve metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH) resolution and fibrosis regression compared to placebo, primarily through weight loss and insulin sensitization, with some agents showing direct hepatic benefits.

For patients with MASH, incretin-based therapies like Semaglutide (2.4mg weekly) are highly effective at resolving liver inflammation and improving fibrosis, often outperforming placebo in clinical trials. While gastrointestinal side effects are common, they can be managed with careful dosing and dietary adjustments, making these drugs a viable and potent option for those who struggle with lifestyle changes alone.

GLP-1 receptor agonists (specifically liraglutide and semaglutide) significantly improve histological features of NASH (steatohepatitis resolution) and reduce liver fat content in patients with Type 2 Diabetes, though they may not consistently improve fibrosis.

If you have Type 2 Diabetes and fatty liver, current guidelines prioritize GLP-1 agonists (like liraglutide or semaglutide) or SGLT2 inhibitors over older drugs like metformin for liver health. These medications not only lower blood sugar but actively reduce liver fat and inflammation. The most effective approach combines these medications with lifestyle changes: aim for 7-10% weight loss through a Mediterranean-style diet and regular aerobic exercise. This combination offers the best chance for resolving NASH and protecting your heart and kidneys.

Pioglitazone (a PPAR-gamma agonist) significantly improves liver inflammation and steatosis in NASH patients, including those with Type 2 Diabetes, but is limited by side effects like weight gain and heart failure risk.

Pioglitazone is an effective, low-cost option for improving liver inflammation in diabetic patients with NASH. However, it is not a first-line choice for everyone due to side effects like weight gain, bone loss, and potential heart failure exacerbation. It is best considered for patients who do not have heart failure or osteoporosis, and who are monitored closely by their doctor.

SGLT2 inhibitors (specifically empagliflozin and dapagliflozin) reduce liver fat content and may improve fibrosis markers in patients with Type 2 Diabetes, offering a cardioprotective and renoprotective alternative to GLP-1 agonists.

SGLT2 inhibitors (like empagliflozin or dapagliflozin) are effective for reducing liver fat and fibrosis in diabetic patients. They are particularly recommended for patients who also have heart failure or kidney disease, as these drugs offer significant protective benefits for these organs. They are a viable alternative to GLP-1 agonists, especially if injections are not preferred.

Tirzepatide provides clinically meaningful HbA1c reduction and dose-proportional weight loss in older adults (≥65 years) with type 2 diabetes who do not have obesity (BMI < 30 kg/m2), without increasing hypoglycemic risk compared to the general population.

If you are over 65 and have type 2 diabetes but are not obese (BMI under 30), tirzepatide is a viable treatment option. It effectively lowers blood sugar and promotes weight loss without increasing the risk of dangerous low blood sugar, provided you are not already on insulin or sulfonylureas. Be aware that gastrointestinal side effects are common, but generally mild, and discontinuation rates due to side effects are slightly higher in this group than in the general population.

GLP-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs) such as semaglutide and liraglutide facilitate weight loss and glycemic control by delaying gastric emptying, stimulating insulin release, and suppressing glucagon secretion.

If you have obesity and struggle to maintain weight loss through diet and exercise alone, GLP-1 medications like liraglutide or semaglutide are FDA-approved options. They work by mimicking a hormone that regulates appetite and digestion. You will need to commit to lifestyle changes alongside the medication, as the drugs are adjuncts, not replacements. Be prepared for potential gastrointestinal side effects, which are common but often subside.