Browse the evidence

Ketogenic dietary therapies (KDTs) may improve cerebrovascular health and neuroprotection by shifting brain energy metabolism from glucose to ketone bodies (specifically β-hydroxybutyrate), reducing oxidative stress, and modulating inflammatory signaling, though current human evidence is limited and heterogeneous.

If you have cognitive concerns or are aging, a ketogenic diet might offer neuroprotective benefits by shifting your brain's fuel source to ketones, which may reduce inflammation and oxidative stress. However, current human evidence is not strong enough to recommend it broadly. If you try it, consider less restrictive versions like the Modified Atkins Diet for better long-term adherence, and be aware that benefits may take weeks to manifest as your body adapts (keto-adaptation).

Time-restricted eating (TRE) with a 9-hour window (10:00-19:00) does not significantly improve glycaemic control (HbA1c) or reduce body mass in individuals with Type 2 Diabetes compared to habitual eating patterns.

If you have Type 2 Diabetes, simply shifting your eating window to 9 hours (e.g., 10am-7pm) without changing *what* or *how much* you eat will not significantly improve your blood sugar levels or help you lose weight. TRE may be feasible to adhere to, but it is not an effective standalone metabolic intervention for T2D unless it leads to reduced caloric intake.

Obesity (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2) is associated with approximately 20% greater greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions compared to a normal-weight state (BMI < 25 kg/m2), contributing an estimated 700 megatons of CO2 equivalent annually globally.

Obesity contributes significantly to global greenhouse gas emissions (approx. 1.6% globally) through increased metabolism, food production, and transportation needs. Addressing obesity is not just a health priority but an environmental one. However, this information should never be used to stigmatize individuals; obesity is driven by powerful environmental factors, and solutions require systemic policy changes rather than individual blame.

The obesity epidemic is primarily driven by an obesogenic environment—specifically the increased availability of highly processed, calorie-dense foods and reduced occupational physical activity—acting on genetically susceptible individuals, rather than by genetics alone.

Focus on modifying your environment rather than relying solely on willpower. Reduce access to highly processed, calorie-dense foods and increase incidental physical activity (e.g., walking, standing) to counteract the sedentary nature of modern work and food availability.

Secondary environmental factors—including poor sleep hygiene, decreased cigarette smoking, increased atmospheric CO2, thermoneutrality, screen time, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, medications, and an unhealthy microbiome—contribute to the obesity epidemic by tipping the energy balance equation.

Consider secondary factors like sleep quality and exposure to endocrine disruptors. While food and activity are primary, improving sleep hygiene and reducing unnecessary medication/chemical exposure may support weight management.

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) activation and the 'browning' of white adipose tissue (WAT) represent a potential therapeutic avenue for increasing energy expenditure and reducing body weight, although its clinical relevance in humans remains debated.

You can potentially increase your energy expenditure by activating brown fat, but this is not a guaranteed or standalone solution for weight loss. Strategies like cold exposure and sustained physical activity may promote 'browning' of white fat, turning it into heat-producing tissue. However, since its clinical impact is still debated, focus on these as complementary tools to a balanced diet and regular exercise, not replacements.

Whey protein supplementation without resistance training significantly reduces daily protein intake in postmenopausal women, suggesting a compensatory eating mechanism.

If you take whey protein but do not exercise, you might actually end up eating less protein from your regular meals. This means your total protein intake may drop, which is why you won't see muscle benefits. To increase protein, focus on whole foods or ensure the supplement doesn't replace other protein sources.

Pharmacological inhibition of the postsynaptic scaffolding proteins PSD-95 (via UCCB01-147) and PICK1 (via mPD5) induces sustained weight loss in obese mice primarily through a non-aversive reduction in food intake, with effects persisting for days after treatment cessation.

This research identifies two specific brain proteins (PSD-95 and PICK1) that, when blocked by experimental drugs, cause obese mice to eat less without feeling sick, leading to significant fat loss that lasts for days after the drug is stopped. While not yet available for humans, this suggests a potential future treatment class that avoids the common side effects of current obesity drugs and offers sustained benefits.

Maintenance of weight loss (≥5% loss in the first year, maintained at 5 years) is not associated with a reduced incidence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) events in people with type 2 diabetes, with confidence intervals overlapping the null.

Maintaining weight loss does not appear to significantly reduce your risk of heart disease or stroke if you have type 2 diabetes. Focus on other aspects of cardiovascular health, such as blood pressure and cholesterol management, rather than relying solely on weight maintenance for heart protection.

Meditative movements do not significantly reduce Body Mass Index (BMI) in patients with Type 2 Diabetes.

Do not expect meditative movements like Tai Chi or Yoga to significantly lower your BMI. However, they still provide significant benefits for blood sugar and cholesterol control, making them valuable for overall diabetes management.

Ultra-endurance athletes can successfully complete multi-day events despite consuming only 36-54% of their estimated energy expenditure, primarily by shifting substrate oxidation toward fat and relying on gluconeogenesis to maintain blood glucose.

If you are training for long-duration events, do not expect to eat enough to match your calorie burn. Your body will adapt to burn fat and preserve glucose. Focus on tolerating food during breaks rather than hitting specific calorie targets, as appetite suppression is a natural physiological response to prolonged exercise.

Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets do not result in greater weight loss or improved metabolic markers compared to higher GI/GL diets or other standard diets in people with overweight or obesity.

If you are trying to lose weight, switching to a low GI or GL diet is unlikely to give you better results than other diets. Focus on creating a sustainable energy deficit rather than prioritizing the glycaemic index of foods.

The 'Obesity Paradox'—where overweight or mildly obese patients have better prognosis in certain diseases—is likely an artifact of BMI's inability to distinguish between phenotypes and sampling errors, rather than a true protective effect of fat.

Do not rely on the 'obesity paradox' to excuse poor health. If you are overweight, focus on improving your metabolic health and body composition, as BMI alone is an imperfect predictor of risk.

In obese middle-aged and older adults, weight loss is associated with an increased risk of atherosclerosis (cIMT > 1.0 mm) compared to moderate weight stability.

If you are obese and older, be aware that losing weight in this observational study was linked to higher atherosclerosis risk. This may be due to unintentional loss from other health issues. Consult a doctor to ensure weight loss is intentional and healthy, rather than a sign of underlying disease.

Oriental Melon Stem Ethanol Extract (CMSE) reduces body weight and fat mass in high-fat diet-induced obese mice by increasing energy expenditure and enhancing brown adipose tissue thermogenesis, independent of calorie intake.

If you are looking for a supplement to support weight management, Oriental Melon Stem Extract (CMSE) shows promise in animal studies for boosting metabolism and burning fat without needing to eat less. The effective dose in mice translates to a high daily intake for humans (~2.3g), which falls within the range of dietary supplements. While not a magic bullet, it may support metabolic health and liver function when combined with a balanced diet.

Intensive lifestyle intervention (weight loss, reduced caloric intake, increased physical activity) does not significantly prevent diabetic peripheral neuropathy in patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) and may have negative effects in some contexts.

While weight loss is generally good for health, aggressive lifestyle interventions alone may not prevent nerve damage in Type 2 Diabetes and should not replace standard glycemic management.

Intermittent energy restriction (IER) does not significantly differ from continuous energy restriction (CER) in preserving fat-free mass (FFM) or fat mass (FM) when expressed as a percentage of total weight lost.

Don't worry that IER will cause more muscle loss than daily dieting. When you lose weight, the proportion of muscle vs. fat lost is similar for both methods. To protect muscle, incorporate resistance training into your routine.

Time-restricted eating (TRE) does not significantly change systolic or diastolic blood pressure in adults.

Do not expect TRE to lower blood pressure significantly on its own. If you have hypertension, continue standard medical management.

Intermittent fasting (time-restricted feeding or alternate-day fasting) is not superior to continuous energy restriction for weight loss and may have limited long-term data.

Intermittent fasting (like time-restricted feeding) can help you lose weight, but it is not necessarily better than simply eating fewer calories every day. There is not enough long-term data to recommend it as a superior long-term strategy. Choose the method that fits your lifestyle best.

Increased abundance of Lachnospiraceae, particularly Blautia and Roseburia, is associated with metabolic disturbances, including obesity and type 2 diabetes, primarily through enhanced energy extraction from dietary carbohydrates and elevated circulating short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs).

If you are managing weight or blood sugar, be aware that not all fiber-fermenting bacteria are equal. An overgrowth of Lachnospiraceae (like Blautia) can actually increase the calories you absorb from carbohydrates, potentially worsening metabolic health. Focus on dietary patterns that support a balanced microbiome rather than just maximizing 'good bacteria' counts, especially if you consume high-carb diets.

Exposure to environmental factors such as road traffic noise and fine particulate matter increases the risk of type 2 diabetes by 20-40% for every 10 dB increase in noise or 10 μg/m3 increase in fine dust.

Minimize your exposure to road traffic noise and fine particulate matter, as living near busy roads increases diabetes risk by 20-40%. Use air purifiers, soundproof your home, and spend time in greener areas to reduce this environmental risk factor.

Caloric restriction and fasting-mimicking diets modulate aging pathways (NF-κB, mTOR, MAPK) to reduce pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α) and counteract inflamm-aging.

Intermittent fasting or caloric restriction may help reduce chronic inflammation in older adults by modulating key aging pathways. However, these approaches require careful planning and may not be suitable for everyone, especially those with poor nutrition.

In adult critically ill patients, providing higher energy intake (up to 30 kcal/kg/day) compared to lower intake (down to 300 kcal/day) does not significantly improve clinical outcomes such as mortality, length of stay, or infection rates.

For critically ill adults in the ICU, aim for 12-25 kcal/kg/day during the first 7-10 days. Do not aggressively push for higher calories, as studies show no benefit over lower doses and potential risks like hyperglycemia. Monitor blood sugar and triglycerides closely.

Early menarche is associated with an increased risk of NAFLD in adulthood, primarily driven by excess adiposity rather than estrogen activation itself.

Women who start their periods early should be vigilant about weight management. Although early estrogen exposure is generally protective, it is often linked to higher body fat later in life, which cancels out that protection and increases the risk of fatty liver disease.