Browse the evidence

Plasma IL-6 concentrations are higher in type 2 diabetic patients and age-matched non-diabetic controls compared to young healthy subjects.

Higher IL-6 levels in older populations may indicate a need for different health management strategies.

Plasma levels of androgens tend to decrease over time in postmenopausal women.

Practitioners should be aware that androgen levels may decline with age in postmenopausal women.

Orosensory signals (taste and oral contact) activate PRLH neurons in the caudal nucleus of the solitary tract (cNTS) to inhibit feeding on a seconds-timescale, thereby controlling the duration of feeding bursts.

Eating slowly and paying attention to the taste and texture of food engages specific brain circuits (PRLH neurons) that signal satiety within seconds. This neural feedback loop helps you stop eating sooner by reducing the size of each bite or 'bout' of eating, rather than waiting for your stomach to feel full.

Human hypothalamic melanocortin neurons (POMC and AgRP) exhibit significant transcriptomic and receptor-expression differences compared to mice, including species-specific GPCR profiles that directly impact the mechanism and efficacy of current obesity therapies.

Current obesity treatments like semaglutide and tirzepatide target the hypothalamus, but their exact molecular mechanisms in humans may differ from what we learned from mouse studies. This map reveals that human POMC neurons express different receptors (like CALCR) than mouse POMC neurons. This means drug developers must account for these human-specific differences to improve efficacy and reduce side effects, rather than relying solely on rodent data.

SGLT-2 inhibitors provide cardiovascular and renal protective benefits independent of their glucose-lowering effects, including reduced risk of heart failure hospitalization and worsening renal function.

SGLT-2 inhibitors (like Jardiance or Farxiga) are not just for blood sugar. They are now a standard treatment for heart failure and kidney disease, even in people without diabetes. They significantly reduce the risk of being hospitalized for heart failure and slow down kidney damage. If you have heart or kidney issues, ask your doctor if this class of medication is appropriate for you.

Estrogen therapy does not reduce cardiovascular disease events and may increase stroke risk in postmenopausal women, particularly those with diabetes, and is not recommended for chronic disease prevention.

Do not use estrogen to prevent heart disease. It does not work for this purpose and may increase stroke risk. If you have severe menopausal symptoms and are at low risk for other issues, it may be used for symptom relief, but risk calculators should guide this decision.

SGLT-2 inhibitors slow the progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and reduce the risk of end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) in patients with type 2 diabetes and albuminuria.

If you have diabetes and early kidney disease (albuminuria), SGLT-2 inhibitors (like Jardiance or Invokana) are recommended to protect your kidneys. They slow down the decline of kidney function and reduce the risk of needing dialysis, even if your blood sugar is already controlled.

SGLT-2 inhibitors reduce the risk of worsening heart failure and cardiovascular death in patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), regardless of diabetes status.

If you have heart failure with a weak pumping heart (HFrEF), SGLT-2 inhibitors (like Jardiance or Farxiga) are now a standard part of treatment. They reduce hospitalizations and death, even if you don't have diabetes. They help your heart pump more efficiently.

SGLT2 inhibitors significantly reduce heart failure hospitalizations and cardiovascular death in patients with Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction (HFrEF) and Preserved Ejection Fraction (HFpEF), regardless of diabetes status.

If you have Heart Failure (whether your heart pumps strongly or weakly), SGLT2 inhibitors (Dapagliflozin or Empagliflozin) are a cornerstone treatment that reduces hospitalizations and death, even if you do not have Diabetes. Ask your cardiologist about these medications.

Lixisenatide, a GLP-1 receptor agonist, does not reduce the rate of major cardiovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes and recent acute coronary syndrome compared to placebo.

If you have type 2 diabetes and have recently had a heart event, adding lixisenatide to your treatment plan will not lower your risk of another heart attack, stroke, or cardiovascular death compared to standard care alone. However, it does help lower blood sugar levels and may lead to modest weight loss. It is safe regarding serious adverse events like pancreatitis or cancer, but gastrointestinal issues like nausea are common reasons for stopping the drug.

Postmenopausal estrogen therapy does not reduce the risk of coronary heart disease and may increase it, contradicting observational data that suggested a protective effect.

If you are postmenopausal, do not take estrogen therapy solely to prevent heart disease. This paper demonstrates that it does not lower your risk of coronary heart disease and might actually increase it. Consult your doctor for other preventive strategies.

Current use of postmenopausal hormone therapy (estrogen alone or estrogen plus progestin) significantly increases the risk of invasive breast cancer, with the risk rising significantly after five or more years of use and being highest in women over age 55.

If you are a postmenopausal woman considering hormone therapy, be aware that current use of estrogen (alone or with progestin) increases breast cancer risk, especially if you are over 55 and use it for more than five years. Discuss these specific risks with your doctor to weigh them against potential benefits.

The increased risk of breast cancer mortality is associated with five or more years of postmenopausal hormone therapy, with a relative risk of death of 1.45.

Long-term use of estrogen (5+ years) is linked to a higher risk of dying from breast cancer. This underscores the importance of regular screening and discussing the duration of therapy with your doctor.

GIP is the major physiological mediator of the incretin effect in healthy humans, contributing more to insulin secretion than GLP-1.

In healthy individuals, GIP is the primary driver of the 'incretin effect' (the boost in insulin after eating). This physiological fact underpins the rationale for using dual GIP/GLP-1 drugs in diabetes.

Beta-cell dysfunction and loss of functional mass are present at the time of Type 2 Diabetes diagnosis and progressively decline by approximately 5% annually, independent of disease duration.

Understand that beta-cell function naturally declines after diagnosis. This is not your fault, but it is a biological reality. The goal of management is to slow this decline by reducing the workload on your pancreas through weight management and lifestyle changes.

SGLT2 inhibitors (empagliflozin, canagliflozin, dapagliflozin) reduce cardiovascular mortality and heart failure hospitalization in type 2 diabetes patients, primarily through hemodynamic effects (osmotic diuresis and natriuresis) rather than glucose-lowering.

If you have Type 2 Diabetes and heart or kidney issues, SGLT2 inhibitors (like empagliflozin or dapagliflozin) are now considered a primary treatment option. They protect your heart and kidneys through fluid balance mechanisms, not just by lowering sugar. Discuss with your doctor if you are a candidate, especially if you have existing heart disease or kidney impairment.

Adipocyte ACLY facilitates the activation of the transcription factor ChREBP, which is necessary for glucose uptake and de novo lipogenesis in adipose tissue.

This mechanism highlights why healthy fat storage is important for metabolic health. If the enzymes that help fat cells store energy properly are disrupted, sugar may end up in the liver instead, causing harm.

The PI3K-Akt-mTOR signaling pathway is a key mechanism linking obesity and diabetes to cancer, as it is sensitive to nutrient status and cell energy states.

Understanding that high insulin and nutrient levels activate cancer-promoting pathways highlights why maintaining healthy weight and blood sugar is crucial for cancer prevention.

Tanycytic release of VEGF-A is the mechanistic mediator that allows hypoglycemia to increase GLP-1 receptor agonist entry into the brain.

This is a basic science finding. It suggests that the health of specialized brain cells (tanycytes) and their production of VEGF are critical for GLP-1 drugs to work centrally.

SGLT2 inhibitors reduce the risk of heart failure hospitalization and cardiovascular death in patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), regardless of diabetes status.

If you have heart failure, especially with reduced ejection fraction, ask your doctor about SGLT2 inhibitors like empagliflozin or dapagliflozin. These drugs help your heart pump better and reduce hospitalizations, even if you don't have diabetes.

Interventions that delay or prevent the onset of type 2 diabetes in overweight/obese subjects with dysglycemia do not reduce the subsequent development or prevalence of diabetic retinopathy for up to 20 years.

If you have prediabetes or are at risk for type 2 diabetes, preventing or delaying the onset of diabetes through lifestyle changes or medication (like metformin) does not guarantee that you will avoid eye damage (retinopathy). Retinopathy can start during the prediabetic stage. Therefore, regular eye exams are crucial for people with prediabetes, regardless of whether they successfully prevent diabetes.

Insulin-lowering diets have not yet been conclusively demonstrated to improve cancer-specific endpoints such as tumor response, disease-specific survival, or overall survival in clinical settings.

Do not rely on insulin-lowering diets as a cure or primary treatment for metastatic cancer. While they improve metabolic health and are safe, they have not been proven to extend life or shrink tumors in humans. Use them only as an adjunct to standard care under medical supervision.

Empagliflozin, a sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor, significantly reduces cardiovascular death, all-cause mortality, and hospitalization for heart failure in patients with type 2 diabetes at high cardiovascular risk.

If you have type 2 diabetes and are at high risk for heart problems, empagliflozin is a medication that can significantly lower your risk of dying from heart issues, dying from any cause, and being hospitalized for heart failure. It works by helping your kidneys remove sugar and water, which also helps lower blood pressure and weight. While it does increase the risk of genital infections, the cardiovascular benefits are substantial for high-risk individuals.

Combined estrogen plus progestin therapy increases the risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, pulmonary embolism, and invasive breast cancer in healthy postmenopausal women, outweighing benefits for fracture prevention and colorectal cancer reduction.

For healthy postmenopausal women considering hormone therapy primarily to prevent heart disease or other chronic conditions, current evidence from the Women's Health Initiative indicates that the risks (including heart disease, stroke, blood clots, and breast cancer) outweigh the benefits (reduced hip fractures and colorectal cancer). Therefore, this regimen is not recommended for primary prevention.