Browse the evidence

Obesity increases the risk of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) in premenopausal women, primarily through abdominal (visceral) obesity rather than overall BMI.

If you are premenopausal, your waist size matters more for breast cancer risk than your overall weight. Abdominal fat is linked to a more aggressive type of breast cancer called triple-negative breast cancer. Focus on maintaining a healthy waist-to-hip ratio through diet and exercise, as this specific type of fat distribution drives risk in younger women.

High consumption of ultra-processed foods (UPF) displaces unprocessed and minimally processed foods, leading to a diet with significantly higher free sugars, saturated fats, and energy density, and lower protein, fiber, and potassium, thereby increasing the prevalence of nutrient inadequacy associated with non-communicable diseases (NCD).

To improve your diet quality and reduce NCD risk, prioritize unprocessed or minimally processed foods (fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean meats) and limit ultra-processed foods (soft drinks, packaged snacks, processed meats, industrial breads). As UPF consumption rises, your intake of harmful sugars and fats increases while beneficial fiber and protein decrease, significantly raising your risk of nutrient inadequacy.

A high-fat, low-carbohydrate diet (high dietary fat intake) increases whole-body fat oxidation and reduces skeletal muscle mitochondrial respiration in trained humans, whereas low carbohydrate availability alone does not drive these adaptations.

If you are a trained endurance athlete, consuming a diet with >65% of calories from fat (while keeping carbs low at <20%) for about 5 days will significantly increase your body's ability to burn fat during exercise and reduce mitochondrial respiration rates. This adaptation is driven by the high fat intake itself, not just by restricting carbohydrates. Performance in time trials remains unchanged despite these metabolic shifts.

Low-carbohydrate diets offer superior short-term glycaemic control (HbA1c reduction) compared to high-carbohydrate diets, but this benefit is not maintained at 12 months.

If you have type 2 diabetes, a low-carbohydrate diet can help lower your HbA1c significantly in the first 6 months. However, this advantage tends to disappear after a year, likely because it is hard to stick to. Focus on a sustainable dietary pattern that you can maintain long-term.

Exercise cessation during weight regain leads to increased fat mass, larger adipocytes, and decreased lean mass, negating the benefits of prior exercise.

If you have to stop exercising, be aware that your body may quickly regain fat and lose muscle. Combining this period with a diet high in resistant starch may help mitigate these negative effects.

In typical human diets, variations in non-macronutrient content (water and fiber) have a significantly larger effect on dietary energy density than variations in macronutrient composition (specifically % energy from fat).

To lower the energy density of your diet, prioritize foods high in water and fiber (vegetables, fruits, soups) rather than just focusing on reducing fat. The paper demonstrates that changing the water/fiber content has a 4-7 times larger impact on energy density than changing the fat content in typical diets.

High-carbohydrate, high-fiber diets (60-70% carbs) are effective and acceptable for managing Type 2 Diabetes in Indian populations, refuting the necessity of strict carbohydrate restriction.

Focus on your traditional Indian staples like dal, whole grains, and vegetables. Aim for 60-70% of your calories from these high-fiber carbohydrates, keep protein moderate (10-15%), and limit fats (10%). This approach is culturally acceptable and clinically effective for controlling blood sugar.

Using a carbohydrate-to-fiber ratio of 10:1 or a combined 10:1 carb:fiber and 1:2 fiber:free sugar ratio effectively identifies carbohydrate-rich processed products with superior nutritional profiles, including lower calories, fat, and sodium, and higher protein, fiber, and micronutrients.

When choosing processed carbohydrate-rich foods like bread, cereal, or snacks, look for products that have at least 1 gram of fiber for every 10 grams of total carbohydrate. This '10:1' ratio is a practical, validated way to identify products with lower calories, less fat, and more beneficial nutrients like protein and minerals. Avoid relying solely on terms like 'whole grain' or 'multigrain,' as these can mask high sugar and calorie content.

Higher dietary protein intake (1.2-1.5 g/kg/day) combined with adequate calcium intake is associated with lower hip fracture risk and improved bone mineral density in older adults, whereas high protein with low calcium may increase fracture risk.

Aim for 1.2-1.5 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight daily, ensuring you also consume 1000-1200 mg of calcium. This combination protects against hip fractures and preserves muscle mass. Do not restrict protein out of fear of bone loss; instead, ensure your calcium intake is sufficient to support the protein.

Lipase inhibitors (orlistat and cetilistat) reduce weight by inhibiting fat absorption, but are associated with gastrointestinal side effects and are less effective in patients with diabetes.

Orlistat is a daily pill that blocks fat absorption. It is taken with meals containing fat. It can cause gastrointestinal side effects like oily stools. It is not effective for patients with diabetes.

Consumption of saturated fatty acids (SFA) increases large, buoyant LDL particle mass and decreases small, dense LDL (sdLDL) particles compared to unsaturated fats or carbohydrates.

If you consume saturated fats, they tend to make your LDL particles larger and less dense compared to unsaturated fats or carbohydrates. While this lowers total LDL cholesterol, it may also increase small, dense LDL particles in some individuals, which are more strongly linked to heart disease risk. The net effect on cardiovascular risk is complex and depends on the overall dietary pattern.

Replacing saturated fatty acids with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) or monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) decreases total LDL cholesterol but may increase small, dense LDL particles or have no effect on LDL particle size.

Replacing saturated fats with unsaturated fats (like olive oil or nuts) lowers total LDL cholesterol, which is generally beneficial. However, this shift may also increase small, dense LDL particles in some individuals, which are more strongly linked to heart disease. The net effect on cardiovascular risk is complex and depends on the overall dietary pattern.

An acute increase in dietary fat (from 20% to 50% of energy) for two days increases whole-body fat oxidation and shifts skeletal muscle metabolism toward oxidative capacity in both lean and obese humans.

If you eat more fat for a couple of days, your body will naturally burn more of that fat for fuel, even if you are obese. This adaptation happens quickly (within 24-48 hours) and works similarly for lean and obese people. However, because this study was isocaloric (same calories), simply eating more fat without reducing other calories will still lead to fat storage because the body stores the excess energy.

A higher variety score of dietary protein sources (consuming appropriate quantities from more of the eight major sources: grains, meat, poultry, fish, egg, legumes) is inversely associated with the risk of new-onset diabetes.

To lower your risk of type 2 diabetes, aim to include a variety of protein sources in your diet rather than relying on just one or two. The study suggests that consuming appropriate amounts from a mix of grains, legumes, fish, poultry, and eggs is associated with a significantly lower risk of developing diabetes compared to a diet with fewer protein sources. You do not need to eliminate any specific source, but rather ensure your diet includes a broad spectrum of these foods.

Total protein intake has a U-shaped association with diabetes risk, where both very low (<10.6% of energy) and very high (≥14.0% of energy) intakes are associated with higher risk compared to moderate intake (10.6-14.0% of energy).

Avoid both very low and very high total protein intakes. The study suggests that getting 10.6% to 14.0% of your daily calories from protein is associated with the lowest risk of developing diabetes. This means you should neither severely restrict protein nor consume excessive amounts, but rather aim for a moderate level.

Specific protein sources have non-linear associations with diabetes risk: fish and legumes show inverse J/L-shaped associations (lower risk with higher intake), while red meat and poultry show J/U-shaped associations (increased risk at high intakes).

Choose your protein sources wisely. Fish and legumes are associated with lower diabetes risk, especially at higher intakes. Red meat and poultry should be consumed in moderation, as high intakes are associated with increased risk. Eggs and whole grains are also beneficial when consumed in appropriate amounts.

High intake of starch (primarily from rice) is inversely associated with total, cardiovascular, and non-cancer/non-cardiovascular mortality in Japanese men, whereas high intake of total sugars (including glucose, fructose, and sucrose) is positively associated with these mortality risks.

For Japanese men, prioritizing starch (like rice) over sugars (including glucose, fructose, and sucrose) is associated with lower mortality risk. High sugar intake, regardless of source (free or natural), is linked to higher mortality. Women showed no significant association for starch, but free sugar intake was positively associated with mortality. Focus on reducing total sugar intake rather than just free sugars, and maintain starch intake as a primary energy source.

In Japanese women, high starch intake is not significantly associated with mortality, but high free sugar intake is positively associated with total and non-cancer/non-cardiovascular mortality.

For Japanese women, reducing free sugar intake is associated with lower mortality risk, while starch intake (like rice) does not appear to increase mortality risk. Focus on minimizing free sugars rather than restricting starch.

In females with type 2 diabetes, the combination of low fat mass and low muscle mass is synergistically associated with higher glycated hemoglobin (A1C) levels compared to other body composition phenotypes.

If you are a woman with type 2 diabetes, do not assume that being thin means your blood sugar is well-managed. This research shows that having low body fat AND low muscle mass is a specific risk factor for higher blood sugar levels. To improve your A1C, focus on building muscle mass through resistance training, rather than just trying to lose weight or stay thin.

In males with type 2 diabetes, high fat mass is significantly associated with higher A1C, but muscle mass does not significantly influence A1C levels.

If you are a man with type 2 diabetes, your blood sugar levels are more closely linked to your body fat than your muscle mass. While building muscle is healthy, prioritizing fat loss through diet and exercise is likely to have a more direct impact on lowering your A1C levels.

When essential amino acid profiles are equated, a novel plant-based protein matrix provides equivalent benefits to whey protein for body composition, strength, power, and aerobic performance in trained futsal players over an 8-week period.

If you are an athlete consuming enough total protein (over 1.6g/kg body weight per day), the specific source of your protein supplement (plant vs. whey) does not matter for muscle gain, strength, or performance, provided the plant protein is formulated to match the essential amino acid profile of whey. You can choose plant-based options without sacrificing results.

High consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB) is associated with an increasing burden of cardiometabolic mortality, with attributable deaths rising by 7.2% between 1990 and 2010, despite being a smaller absolute contributor than nuts or fruit deficits.

Cutting out sugary drinks is crucial because their consumption is rising and driving up heart and diabetes deaths. Even though other factors like low nut intake cause more total deaths, the trend for sugary drinks is getting worse, so reducing them is a high-priority action.

GLP-1 receptor agonists (semaglutide) and dual GLP-1/GIP agonists (tirzepatide) cause significant lean mass loss during weight loss, with semaglutide losing approximately 45% of total weight as lean mass and tirzepatide losing 25.7%, posing a specific risk of frailty and fractures in older populations.

If you are taking semaglutide or tirzepatide, be aware that a significant portion of your weight loss (up to 45% for semaglutide) comes from lean mass, not just fat. This is especially risky if you are over 60. Discuss strategies to preserve muscle, such as resistance training or potentially newer combination therapies, with your provider.

Male physique athletes lose significantly more lean mass than female athletes during competition preparation, despite similar reductions in fat mass and muscle size.

Men preparing for physique competitions should be aware they may lose more muscle than women during a cut, likely because they reach lower body fat levels. Prioritizing protein and minimizing the depth of the cut may help preserve muscle.