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Bariatric surgery (VSG and RYGB) is the most effective and sustainable treatment for obesity, producing marked and sustained weight loss that non-surgical interventions cannot match.

If you have obesity, lifestyle changes alone are unlikely to produce lasting, significant weight loss due to biological homeostasis. Bariatric surgery (specifically VSG or RYGB) is currently the only therapy proven to produce marked and sustained weight loss (50-60% excess body weight). While invasive, modern techniques have very low complication rates. Consult a specialist to see if you qualify.

Severely protein-deficient diets (2–3% energy) induce lean body mass loss and metabolic imbalance, whereas adequate protein intake (0.66 g/kg/d minimum) is a prerequisite for maintaining muscle, bone, and physiological function.

Ensure you eat enough protein every day to maintain your muscle and bone. The minimum is around 0.66 g/kg, but if you are older or active, you likely need more. Severe deficiency leads to muscle loss, so don't undereat protein.

For patients with Class III obesity (BMI >39.9 kg/m2), metabolic bariatric surgery (MBS) is significantly more effective than any currently approved medication, with BilioPancreatic Diversion (BPD) showing the highest estimated weight loss.

If you have Class III obesity (BMI >39.9), surgery is the most effective treatment available. Medications like semaglutide are significantly less effective than surgery for this group. If you are not a candidate for surgery or refuse it, medication is still an option, but you should expect less weight loss compared to surgical outcomes.

Supervised exercise training (SET) is the first-line treatment for chronic symptomatic peripheral artery disease (PAD) and intermittent claudication, significantly improving walking distance and functional status.

If you have PAD, supervised walking exercise is your best first treatment. Go to a clinic or program where professionals supervise you. Walk until your leg pain is severe (but not unbearable), rest until it passes, and repeat. Do this at least 3 times a week for 30-60 minutes. This will significantly increase how far you can walk.

Resistance training (RT) is the most effective intervention to prevent, mitigate, and recover from disuse-induced skeletal muscle atrophy in older adults, particularly when combined with adequate protein intake.

To protect your muscles as you age, especially if you have to be inactive for any reason (like surgery or illness), you must do resistance training. Aim for at least two days a week. You don't need heavy weights; resistance bands or bodyweight exercises work well. Focus on doing 1-3 sets of 6-12 repetitions with good effort, and make sure you eat enough protein. This is the best way to keep your strength and independence.

Comprehensive lifestyle intervention combining a daily caloric deficit of 500-1,000 kcal, aerobic exercise of ≥150 minutes per week, and resistance training 2-4 times per week is the foundational, evidence-based standard for obesity management.

Start by cutting 500-1,000 calories daily and aim for 150 minutes of moderate cardio (like brisk walking) spread over 3-5 days. Add 2-4 days of strength training using major muscle groups. Crucially, engage in behavioral counseling (tracking food, setting goals) for at least 6 months to ensure you stick with it.

Performing 10 or more sets per muscle group per week maximizes muscle hypertrophy compared to lower volumes, with a clear dose-response relationship observed across <5, 5–9, and 10+ set categories.

To maximize muscle growth, aim for at least 10 sets per muscle group per week. Start with this volume and adjust based on your recovery and progress. If you are short on time, 4 sets per muscle per week will still produce substantial gains, but 10+ is the target for maximum hypertrophy. Periodize your volume, increasing it over months to promote growth, then deload to recover.

Resistance training protocols for older adults should include 2-3 sets of 1-2 multijoint exercises per major muscle group, performed 2-3 times per week at 70-85% of 1RM, including power exercises at 40-60% 1RM.

Lift weights 2-3 times a week. Do 2-3 sets of 6-12 reps for major muscle groups. Use a weight that is 70-85% of your max for strength, or 40-60% of your max moved quickly for power. Progress gradually.

Multicomponent exercise interventions (aerobic, resistance, balance, and mobility training) are the most effective strategy for attenuating age-related declines in physical function, preventing frailty, and reducing mortality in older adults, whereas single-modality aerobic exercise is insufficient for musculoskeletal health.

For older adults, simply walking is not enough to maintain muscle and prevent falls. You need a mix of activities: strength training (at least 2 days a week), balance exercises, and aerobic activity (150 minutes moderate or 75 minutes vigorous per week). If you are new to exercise or frail, start with just strength training to build a foundation, then add balance and aerobic work. This combination is proven to keep you independent and reduce the risk of falls and chronic disease.

Increasing physical activity from inactivity to recommended levels (150 minutes/week moderate-intensity aerobic activity) significantly reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality by 23%, CVD incidence by 17%, and type 2 diabetes (T2DM) incidence by 26%, independent of body weight.

You do not need to be an athlete to drastically lower your risk of heart disease and diabetes. The most powerful step you can take is simply starting to move if you are currently sedentary. Aiming for 150 minutes of moderate activity (like brisk walking) per week cuts your risk significantly, and you get the biggest 'bang for your buck' by just getting off the couch and doing a little bit, rather than trying to do a huge amount all at once.

Progressive resistance training significantly increases muscle strength in elderly individuals, reversing age-related strength declines and improving functional ability.

If you are elderly, resistance training is safe and highly effective for building strength and maintaining independence. You can expect significant strength gains (28-115% in some studies) with just 12 weeks of lower body training, which helps with daily tasks like climbing stairs and reduces fall risk.

Long-term exercise training (≥1 year) significantly reduces the risk of falls and injurious falls in older adults, with multicomponent training performed 2-3 times per week being the optimal regimen.

For older adults, engaging in moderate-intensity multicomponent exercise (aerobic, strength, and balance) 2-3 times per week for at least a year significantly reduces the risk of falls and injurious falls. This is a safe and effective intervention.

Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) and sleeve gastrectomy (SG) are more effective than adjustable gastric banding (AGB) for weight loss and quality of life in severe obesity, with RYGB providing superior weight loss compared to SG.

If you have severe obesity and are considering surgery, Roux-en-Y gastric bypass offers the best chance for significant, lasting weight loss and improved quality of life. Sleeve gastrectomy is a good alternative if bypass is not possible, but expect less weight loss. Adjustable gastric banding is not recommended as it is significantly less effective. Discuss these options with a specialist bariatric team to determine the best fit for your health profile.

A nutritional supplement is considered ergogenic only if peer-reviewed human studies demonstrate it significantly enhances exercise performance or muscle hypertrophy with long-term ingestion, not just acute effects or preclinical data.

Do not be misled by supplements that claim to work instantly or are only supported by animal studies. Look for products that have been tested in humans over weeks or months of training. The most reliable supplements are those with long-term efficacy data showing they help you build muscle or perform better consistently over time.

The one-repetition maximum (1RM) test demonstrates good-to-excellent test-retest reliability across diverse populations, exercise types, and training statuses, making it a valid tool for assessing muscular strength.

Use the 1RM test to measure your maximum strength. It is a reliable tool regardless of your gender, age, or training experience. You do not need multiple familiarization sessions to get a reliable result, and it works for both upper and lower body exercises. Trust the numbers, as they are consistent.

Adherence to a traditional Mediterranean dietary pattern, combined with not smoking, maintaining a healthy BMI, and regular physical activity, can prevent over 80% of coronary heart disease, 70% of stroke, and 90% of type 2 diabetes.

Adopt a Mediterranean-style diet rich in vegetables, fruits, whole grains, fish, and olive oil. Combine this with regular physical activity, maintaining a healthy weight, and avoiding smoking. This comprehensive approach is estimated to prevent the majority of heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes cases.

Suboptimal dietary intake is responsible for 70.3% of global incident type 2 diabetes cases, with the largest burdens driven by insufficient whole-grain intake, excess refined rice and wheat, and excess processed meat.

Focus on increasing whole grains, reducing refined grains (rice/wheat), and limiting processed meats. These three factors alone account for the majority of diet-attributable diabetes risk globally.

Excess intake of harmful dietary factors (refined grains, processed meats, SSBs, potatoes, fruit juice) contributes a larger proportion (60.8%) of diet-attributable T2D burden than insufficient intake of protective factors (whole grains, yogurt, fruits, vegetables, nuts/seeds) (39.2%).

Prioritize cutting back on refined grains, processed meats, and sugary drinks. While eating more fruits and vegetables is beneficial, the biggest reduction in diabetes risk comes from reducing these specific harmful categories.

An 18-week personalized dietary program (PDP) based on postprandial glucose, triglycerides, microbiome, and health history significantly reduces triglycerides, body weight, waist circumference, and HbA1c compared to standard USDA dietary guidelines.

Follow a personalized nutrition program that uses your body's specific response to food (glucose, triglycerides, microbiome) to guide your diet. This approach leads to greater improvements in triglycerides, weight loss, and blood sugar control compared to following standard government dietary guidelines alone. High adherence to the personalized advice is key to seeing these benefits.

When total volume load (sets x reps x weight) is equated, high-load resistance training (≥80% 1RM) produces superior dynamic strength gains compared to low-load training (<60% 1RM), while muscle hypertrophy remains similar across all load magnitudes.

To maximize strength, prioritize heavier weights (80%+ 1RM). To maximize muscle size, you have flexibility: you can use heavy weights or lighter weights (as low as 30% 1RM), as long as you match the total amount of work (sets x reps x weight). You do not need to train to failure with lighter weights to get the same muscle growth as heavy weights.

Consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) is causally associated with a significant global burden of incident type 2 diabetes (T2D) and cardiovascular disease (CVD), mediated by both direct metabolic effects and adiposity.

Reduce or eliminate sugar-sweetened beverages to significantly lower your risk of developing type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. The risk is not just from weight gain but from how sugar is metabolized directly. This is especially critical if you are young, male, or live in urban areas in high-burden regions like Latin America or Sub-Saharan Africa.

Maximum strength improvements are maximized by heavy loads (high % 1RM), whereas vertical jump performance is maximized by lighter loads (~30% 1RM) and power by low-to-moderate loads (40–70% 1RM).

To maximize strength, use heavy loads. To maximize jumping ability, use lighter loads around 30% of your one-rep max. For general power, use loads between 40-70% of your one-rep max. Do not use the same heavy load for all exercises.

Bariatric surgery (specifically Sleeve Gastrectomy and Roux-en-Y Gastric Bypass) produces significant, sustained weight loss and metabolic improvements in adults with morbid obesity, with RYGB generally demonstrating superior long-term weight loss and diabetes remission rates compared to SG.

For individuals with a BMI ≥35 (or ≥30 with comorbidities like diabetes), bariatric surgery is the most effective medical intervention for significant, sustained weight loss and metabolic health improvement. Roux-en-Y Gastric Bypass (RYGB) generally offers better long-term weight loss and diabetes remission than Sleeve Gastrectomy (SG), but requires strict lifelong supplementation and monitoring. Surgery is not a first-line option for mild obesity but is critical for morbid obesity where lifestyle changes fail.

Supervised exercise training (SET) is a first-line therapy for chronic symptomatic peripheral artery disease (PAD) that significantly improves walking distance and functional status.

If you have PAD, supervised walking exercise is your primary treatment. Go to a clinic or program where professionals supervise you. Walk until your leg pain is severe (3-4 out of 4), rest until it subsides, then walk again. Do this at least 3 times a week for 30+ minutes. This improves your walking distance and quality of life.