Browse the evidence

High intake of sugar-sweetened beverages is associated with a 13-22% increased risk of cardiovascular events (stroke and myocardial infarction) and a 21% higher risk of all-cause mortality, driven largely by cardiovascular mortality.

High consumption of sugary drinks significantly increases your risk of heart attack, stroke, and early death. This risk exists even if you are not overweight. Reducing SSB intake is a critical step for long-term cardiovascular health, especially for women who may face higher stroke risks.

GLP-1 receptor agonists (e.g., exenatide, liraglutide, semaglutide) effectively treat type 2 diabetes and obesity by stimulating glucose-dependent insulin secretion, inhibiting glucagon secretion, slowing gastric emptying, and reducing appetite.

GLP-1 receptor agonists are a highly effective, FDA-approved class of medications for treating type 2 diabetes and obesity. They work by mimicking a natural gut hormone to increase insulin when blood sugar is high, decrease glucagon, slow digestion, and reduce appetite. While they can cause initial nausea, this is often manageable with slow dose increases. They offer the added benefit of cardiovascular protection for many patients.

Oral semaglutide at 7 mg/d and 14 mg/d, when added to metformin with or without sulfonylurea, significantly reduces glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) and body weight compared to sitagliptin in adults with type 2 diabetes.

If you have type 2 diabetes that isn't well-controlled with metformin (with or without sulfonylurea), adding oral semaglutide at 7 mg or 14 mg daily can significantly lower your HbA1c and help you lose weight compared to taking sitagliptin. Start with 3 mg, then increase to 7 mg after 4 weeks, and finally to 14 mg after another 4 weeks. Take it first thing in the morning with water, at least 30 minutes before eating or taking other medications. The 3 mg dose alone is not effective for lowering HbA1c compared to sitagliptin, so sticking to the higher doses is important.

High-dose purified eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) reduces major adverse cardiovascular events by 25% in high-risk patients with elevated triglycerides, an effect not observed with EPA/DHA combinations.

If you have high triglycerides and heart disease risk, ask your doctor about prescription EPA (icosapent ethyl). It has been proven to reduce heart attacks and strokes in people already taking statins, whereas standard fish oil supplements containing DHA have not shown the same benefit.

For prolonged endurance exercise (2-3 hours), ingesting 60 g/h of a single carbohydrate source (like glucose or maltodextrin) is the recommended maximum for oxidation, as intestinal transporters (SGLT1) become saturated.

For races lasting 2 to 3 hours, aim to consume 60 grams of carbohydrates per hour using a single source like glucose or maltodextrin. This is the maximum amount your gut can typically absorb and use for energy without causing stomach upset.

For ultra-endurance exercise (>2.5 hours), ingesting 90 g/h of multiple transportable carbohydrates (e.g., glucose and fructose in a 2:1 ratio) maximizes exogenous oxidation rates and improves performance compared to single-source carbohydrates.

For races longer than 2.5 hours, consume 90 grams of carbohydrates per hour using a mix of glucose and fructose (ideally in a 2:1 ratio). This allows your body to absorb and use more fuel than single-source carbs, delaying fatigue.

Post-exercise massage is the most effective recovery technique for reducing delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) and perceived fatigue, outperforming active recovery, compression garments, immersion, and cryotherapy.

If you are dealing with muscle soreness or fatigue after a hard workout, schedule a 20-30 minute massage within two hours of finishing. This is currently the most evidence-backed way to reduce pain and tiredness, working better than cold baths, compression gear, or active recovery for these specific feelings.

Weighed food records are the most accurate method for assessing habitual dietary intake, significantly outperforming 24-hour recalls, food-frequency questionnaires, and estimated food records, although underreporting occurs in approximately 20% of overweight individuals.

If you need to know exactly what you are eating for health or performance reasons, use weighed food records. While other methods like food frequency questionnaires are easier, they are significantly less accurate. Be aware that overweight individuals tend to underreport their intake, so double-check your records against biological markers if possible.

Resistance exercise training effectively increases muscle mass and strength in the elderly, even in the presence of anabolic resistance, provided protein is ingested around the exercise.

Do resistance training regularly. It works for building muscle and strength even when you are old. To maximize results, eat protein (especially leucine-rich sources) around your workout sessions.

GLP-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RA) provide superior glycemic control and weight loss compared to DPP-4 inhibitors in patients with type 2 diabetes, despite a higher incidence of gastrointestinal side effects.

If you have Type 2 Diabetes and are struggling with blood sugar and weight despite taking metformin, switching from a DPP-4 inhibitor (like sitagliptin) to a GLP-1 receptor agonist (like semaglutide or liraglutide) is likely to give you better blood sugar control and more weight loss. Be prepared for some initial stomach upset (nausea), which usually gets better over time. If you strongly dislike injections, ask about oral semaglutide, which offers similar benefits without needles.

Partial replacement of saturated fatty acids (SFA) with polyunsaturated (PUFA) or monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) significantly lowers fasting total and LDL cholesterol concentrations.

To improve your cholesterol, swap saturated fats (found in butter, fatty meats, full-fat dairy) for unsaturated fats (found in olive oil, nuts, seeds, fish). You don't need to eliminate fat entirely; focus on the type. This substitution is strongly supported by evidence to lower LDL cholesterol.

Partial replacement of saturated fat with polyunsaturated fat (PUFA) decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD), particularly in men.

To lower your risk of heart disease, replace saturated fats (butter, fatty meats) with polyunsaturated fats (vegetable oils, nuts, fish). This change is strongly linked to a lower risk of cardiovascular events, especially for men.

Supervised aerobic exercise training (AET) significantly improves patient-rated physical functioning, overall quality of life, fatigue, and cardiovascular fitness in lymphoma patients, with improvements mediated by increased peak oxygen consumption (VO2peak).

If you have lymphoma, supervised aerobic exercise (like cycling) 3 times a week for 12 weeks can significantly improve your physical function, energy levels, and mood. Start at a moderate intensity and gradually increase duration and intensity. This is safe even while undergoing chemotherapy and does not negatively impact your treatment outcomes.

Consuming 2-3 grams per day of plant sterols or plant stanols lowers LDL-cholesterol by 6-12% in a dose-dependent manner, with maximal benefit occurring around 3 grams per day.

To lower your LDL cholesterol, consume 2-3 grams of plant sterols or stanols daily, typically found in enriched margarines, yogurts, or juices. This dosage yields a 6-12% reduction in LDL. Do not exceed 3 grams daily, as benefits plateau and data on higher doses is unreliable. Ensure you consume these with meals containing fat to maximize absorption.

Maintaining a body mass index (BMI) in the lower normal range (21-23 kg/m2) and engaging in regular physical activity significantly decreases the risk of developing type 2 diabetes.

To prevent type 2 diabetes, prioritize keeping your BMI between 21 and 23 and stay physically active. While specific diets (low fat, low carb, high fiber) have some benefits, the strongest evidence supports weight management and exercise. Aim for regular, vigorous activity if possible, and avoid abdominal obesity. This is the most reliable way to lower your risk.

Consumption of plant sterols/stanols reduces LDL cholesterol by approximately 0.31 mmol/L, with efficacy significantly modulated by baseline LDL levels, food carrier type, and dosing frequency.

To lower LDL cholesterol effectively, consume 1.5 to 2.5 grams of plant sterols or stanols daily. Do not take them as a single morning dose, as this may be ineffective. Instead, split the dose across meals or take it with lunch. Ensure they are delivered in a food matrix with fat, such as fat spreads, milk, or yoghurt, rather than low-fat beverages or baked goods, as these carriers significantly enhance efficacy.

Obesity increases the risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, cancer, and early mortality, while sarcopenia (low muscle mass) increases the risk of injury, disability, and mortality, making the assessment of both fat and lean mass critical for risk stratification.

Maintain a healthy balance of fat and muscle. High fat mass and low muscle mass are both independently linked to higher risks of chronic disease and early death. Regular body composition checks help identify these risks early.

Marine n-3 fatty acid supplementation (specifically EPA at 4g/day) reduces cardiovascular events in high-risk patients with elevated triglycerides, independent of statin therapy.

If you have high triglycerides and are at high cardiovascular risk, ask your doctor about high-dose EPA (4g/day). This specific intervention has been shown to significantly reduce heart attacks and strokes, even for those already taking statins.

Pre-pregnancy overweight or obesity and excessive gestational weight gain are significant, modifiable risk factors that increase the incidence of GDM.

Maintain a healthy weight before pregnancy. If overweight, aim for gradual weight loss before conceiving. During pregnancy, monitor weight gain closely to ensure it stays within recommended guidelines for your pre-pregnancy BMI.

Obesity, particularly abdominal obesity, exacerbates hyperandrogenism and insulin resistance in women with PCOS, leading to poorer reproductive outcomes (anovulation, infertility) compared to normal-weight women with PCOS.

If you have PCOS and are overweight, your excess body fat (especially around the abdomen) is actively making your hormonal imbalance worse. It lowers SHBG and raises insulin, which drives up androgens and stops ovulation. Losing weight reverses this hormonal drive, improving your chances of pregnancy and reducing metabolic risks like diabetes.

Marine omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA) significantly reduce several cardiovascular risk factors, including blood triglycerides, blood pressure, heart rate, and inflammatory markers (CRP, IL-6), regardless of clinical outcome in primary prevention trials.

Taking omega-3 supplements will likely lower your triglycerides and slightly lower your blood pressure. However, this physiological improvement does not always translate to fewer heart attacks in healthy people, so do not rely on it as a sole preventive measure.

Chronic partial sleep restriction (4-5 hours/night) causes dysregulation of appetite hormones (lower leptin, higher ghrelin) and reduced insulin sensitivity, increasing the risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes.

Prioritize getting 7-9 hours of sleep per night. Chronic sleep restriction (less than 6 hours) directly alters your hunger hormones, making you hungrier and less sensitive to insulin, which significantly increases your risk of gaining weight and developing type 2 diabetes. Fixing your sleep schedule is a foundational step for metabolic health.

In individuals with type 2 diabetes, hepatic fat content and hepatic insulin resistance are normalized within days of initiating a hypoenergetic diet, whereas muscle insulin sensitivity remains abnormal for weeks.

If you have early type 2 diabetes, focus on reducing liver fat through a caloric deficit. You do not need to wait for muscle insulin sensitivity to improve; fixing the liver and lowering fasting glucose happens very quickly (within days) by eating less.

Substituting low-energy sweeteners (LES) for sugar in beverages and foods reduces total energy intake and body weight in both adults and children compared to sugar-sweetened alternatives.

If you want to reduce your calorie intake and body weight, replacing sugar-sweetened beverages and foods with low-energy sweetened alternatives is an effective strategy. This substitution leads to a measurable reduction in energy intake and body weight compared to consuming sugar, without increasing appetite or causing compensatory overeating.