Browse the evidence

Combining whey protein supplementation with resistance training significantly increases handgrip strength in older adults with sarcopenia compared to placebo or routine consultation.

For older adults with sarcopenia, combining whey protein supplements with resistance training is an effective strategy to improve handgrip strength. While resistance training alone is beneficial, adding whey protein ensures adequate protein intake to support muscle repair and growth. Aim for 9.6-40g of whey protein per serving, taken 1-3 times daily, alongside 2-5 sessions of resistance training per week for at least 8 weeks.

Adopting a predominantly plant-based dietary pattern improves cardiovascular health markers, including LDL cholesterol, fasting insulin, and body weight, compared to an omnivorous diet.

Start by swapping one animal protein source per day with a plant-based alternative (like lentils or tofu). Focus on adding vegetables, fruits, whole grains, and legumes rather than just cutting out meat. If you experience bloating, increase your fiber intake slowly over weeks rather than all at once. Consider consulting a dietitian to ensure you are getting enough B12 and iron, especially if you are vegan.

Sodium bicarbonate supplementation significantly enhances performance in high-intensity exercise lasting 45 seconds to 8 minutes, as well as muscle endurance and Wingate test power, with effect sizes ranging from small to large.

If you engage in high-intensity efforts lasting roughly 45 seconds to 8 minutes (like sprint intervals or rowing), sodium bicarbonate can improve your performance. While acute dosing (taken 2-3 hours before) works, multi-day protocols (taking small doses daily for 5-7 days before) may offer larger benefits with fewer stomach issues. Note that most evidence comes from men; results for women are not yet clear.

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) and sprint interval training (SIT) improve cardiorespiratory fitness and cardiometabolic risk factors in older adults with safety comparable to or better than moderate-intensity steady-state training, while requiring significantly less time.

Incorporate high-intensity intervals into your routine 2-3 times per week. You can use the '4x4' method (4 minutes of hard effort, 3 minutes of easy recovery, repeated 4 times) or 'Sprint Interval Training' (3 sets of 20-second all-out sprints with 2 minutes rest). These sessions take about 30 minutes total and have been shown to be safe and effective for improving heart health and fitness in older adults, often with better enjoyment than long, slow walks.

Effort-based resistance training using light to moderate loads taken to failure produces similar strength and muscle hypertrophy gains as heavy resistance training, making it safer and more accessible for older adults.

Perform resistance training twice a week using light to moderate weights, machines, or elastic bands. The key is not how much you lift, but how hard you push. Perform repetitions until you can no longer maintain good form (failure). This approach builds strength and muscle mass effectively without the risks associated with heavy lifting, and should be paired with higher protein intake (1.2-1.6g/kg bodyweight).

Training to momentary muscular failure induces significantly higher acute neuromuscular fatigue and repetition loss compared to training with 1-2 repetitions in reserve (RIR).

If you are sensitive to fatigue or have limited recovery capacity, you can reduce the frequency of failure training without losing muscle gains. Training with 1-2 reps in reserve significantly reduces acute fatigue and repetition loss between sets compared to going to failure, potentially allowing for better performance on subsequent exercises or sessions.

Acute caffeine ingestion (1.3–9 mg/kg) significantly improves 2000m rowing ergometer performance by approximately 4 seconds compared to placebo.

If you are a competitive rower, taking caffeine 60 minutes before a 2000m ergometer test can improve your time by about 4 seconds. Doses between 1.3 and 9 mg/kg per body weight are effective, but individual response varies, so test it in training first.

Adherence to a Mediterranean diet significantly reduces cardiovascular mortality, all-cause mortality, myocardial infarction, angina, and major cardiovascular events compared to control diets.

Adopting a Mediterranean-style eating pattern is the most effective dietary strategy for reducing the risk of heart-related death, heart attacks, and overall mortality. This involves eating more fruits, vegetables, nuts, fish, and olive oil, and less processed foods. While weight loss often accompanies this diet, the specific nutrients in these foods provide direct protection to your heart and blood vessels. It is superior to standard low-fat diets for these specific outcomes.

Low-load resistance training with blood flow restriction (LL-RT with BFR) produces muscle hypertrophy equivalent to high-load resistance training (HL-RT) across various repetition schemes (failure, 15 reps, or 75 reps) in lower limb exercises.

If you want to build muscle but cannot lift heavy weights due to injury or joint pain, try low-load resistance training combined with blood flow restriction (BFR). Use light weights (20-40% of your max) and restrict blood flow to the working muscle. You can use different repetition schemes (like 15 reps per set or going to failure), and you will likely build muscle just as effectively as if you were lifting heavy weights. This is particularly useful for rehabilitation or when heavy loading is contraindicated.

Acute supplementation with capsaicin or capsiate (typically 12 mg, 45 minutes pre-exercise) significantly enhances muscular endurance (volume load/repetitions to failure) in resistance training.

If you are doing resistance training, taking 12 mg of capsaicin or capsiate 45 minutes before your workout may help you squeeze out a few more reps or sets. This effect is likely due to reduced perceived effort (RPE) and potentially better muscle contraction mechanics. It does not appear to help with cardio/endurance tasks like running or cycling.

Bodybuilding coaches consistently recommend Creatine and Fish Oils as top supplements, while recommending specific Performance-Enhancing Drugs (Testosterone, Primobolan, GH) for enhanced athletes, highlighting a significant gap between evidence-based supplementation and the lack of safety data for PEDs.

Creatine (3-10 g/day) and Fish Oils are the most recommended supplements by bodybuilding coaches. Creatine is well-supported for strength and muscle gains. Fish oils support general health and may mitigate lipid issues from PEDs. For enhanced athletes, coaches recommend Testosterone, Primobolan, and Growth Hormone, but there is limited safety data on these high-dose regimens in healthy athletes.

Adherence to a diet characterized by high Food Compass 2.0 scores (indicating encouragement of minimally processed foods, legumes, nuts, and seafood, and minimization of ultra-processed foods, added sugars, and artificial additives) is associated with significantly lower risks of cardiovascular disease, cancer, lung disease, metabolic syndrome, and all-cause mortality.

Use the Food Compass 2.0 framework to guide your food choices: prioritize foods scoring 70+ (like seafood, legumes, nuts, vegetables, and fruits), consume foods scoring 31-69 (like meat, poultry, eggs, and dairy) in moderation, and minimize foods scoring 30 or below (like sugary beverages, processed cereals, and many snacks). This approach focuses on nutrient density, fiber, and minimizing added sugars and artificial additives, rather than just avoiding 'processed' foods.

For recreationally trained men, performing resistance training 4 times per week yields significantly greater upper-body strength gains (bench press and arm curl) than 2 times per week when total weekly volume is equated, while muscle size and power adaptations remain similar between frequencies.

If you are a recreationally trained man focused on maximizing upper-body strength (bench press, curls), aim for 4 resistance training sessions per week. If your primary goals are muscle size (hypertrophy) or power, 2 sessions per week is equally effective, provided you perform the same total amount of work (sets x weight) in those 2 sessions as you would in 4. Do not assume that adding more workout days automatically adds more muscle; it adds strength efficiency for upper-body lifts.

An East Asian diet-mimicking plan based on Mediterranean and DASH principles, delivered as ready meals, significantly improves glycemic control (HbA1c) and reduces cardiovascular risk factors compared to a self-prepared food exchange system-based diet in Korean adults with type 2 diabetes.

For Korean adults with type 2 diabetes, switching from a traditional food exchange system to a culturally adapted Mediterranean/DASH-style diet can significantly lower HbA1c and improve cardiovascular risk factors. The key to success in this study was the provision of ready meals, which ensured adherence to the specific macronutrient profile (lower net carbs, higher unsaturated fats) without requiring participants to master new cooking techniques. If you struggle with adherence, consider a meal delivery service that offers similar low-glycemic, high-unsaturated-fat options tailored to your cultural preferences.

Various strength training methodologies (plyometric, occlusion, variable resistance, conventional, eccentric, and concurrent) consistently increase indicators of muscle fatigue (blood lactate, heart rate, RPE, DOMS, and ammonia), and the magnitude of this fatigue depends on the specific training method, population characteristics, and sex.

Expect to feel fatigued during and after strength training. This is normal and varies by the type of exercise (e.g., plyometrics vs. occlusion) and your fitness level. Monitor indicators like heart rate and perceived exertion to manage your training load and recovery.

For recreationally resistance-trained individuals, performing low-bar back squats allows for the lifting of significantly greater loads compared to high-bar or safety-bar squats, making it the superior technique for maximizing strength output.

If your main goal is to lift the heaviest weight possible, use the low-bar squat technique. Place the bar lower on your upper back (below the traps) to allow for greater hip flexion and torso lean, which enables you to lift significantly more load than with high-bar or safety-bar techniques.

Safety-bar squats produce greater myoelectric activity in the gluteus maximus compared to high-bar squats, making them a potentially more effective tool for targeting gluteal hypertrophy.

If you want to specifically target your glutes for growth, try using a safety-bar squat. This specialized bar allows for a more upright torso position, which was found to increase gluteus maximus activation compared to the standard high-bar squat.

Multidisciplinary interventions combining diet, physical activity, pharmacological treatments, and bariatric surgery are required to effectively reduce cardiovascular risk and mortality in obese patients, as lifestyle changes alone are often insufficient.

Do not rely on diet and exercise alone to manage obesity-related heart risks. Because relapse is common with lifestyle changes alone, you should seek a multidisciplinary care plan that may include FDA-approved weight-loss medications or bariatric surgery alongside lifestyle modifications. This combined approach is the standard of care for reducing cardiovascular events and mortality in obese patients.

Early and lifelong treatment of obesity is critical to prevent weight recurrence, preserve lean body mass, and reduce cardiometabolic risk.

Treat obesity as a chronic condition requiring lifelong management, not a short-term diet. Focus on early intervention to prevent complications and preserve muscle mass. Use comprehensive strategies including nutrition, physical activity, behavioral counseling, and medical interventions as needed. Regular follow-ups are essential to maintain health and prevent weight recurrence.

Bariatric surgery (sleeve gastrectomy, gastric bypass, duodenal switch) provides superior long-term total weight loss (23.4%–40.7%) compared to GLP-1 receptor agonists (up to 25.3% with tirzepatide).

If your primary goal is maximum, durable weight loss, bariatric surgery currently outperforms GLP-1 medications in long-term results. However, surgery requires accepting permanent anatomical changes and potential risks. GLP-1s offer a less invasive alternative with significant weight loss, but require lifelong adherence to avoid regain and manage side effects. Choose based on your tolerance for invasiveness versus daily medication burden.

Bariatric surgery (specifically sleeve gastrectomy and Roux-en-Y gastric bypass) achieves sustained weight loss and high rates of type 2 diabetes remission, while also significantly improving or resolving obstructive sleep apnea and metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD).

If you have severe obesity with diabetes or sleep apnea, bariatric surgery (sleeve or bypass) is the most effective current treatment for reversing these conditions. It offers the best chance for diabetes remission and resolving sleep apnea, though you must be monitored for potential liver issues if you lose weight too quickly.

A 12-week combined resistance exercise and protein supplementation intervention significantly increases lean body mass in community-dwelling older adults aged 75 and younger, but not in those older than 75.

If you are 75 or younger, this combined exercise and protein strategy is effective for adding muscle mass. If you are over 75, you may not gain significant muscle mass, but you will still gain significant strength and functional ability, so the intervention remains valuable for mobility.

Older adults with mobility-impairing disorders (frailty, sarcopenia, or osteoarthritis) benefit equally from combined resistance exercise and protein supplementation as those without these disorders in terms of absolute effects.

If you have frailty, sarcopenia, or osteoarthritis, this combined exercise and protein program is still effective for you. You can expect similar absolute improvements in strength and function as older adults without these conditions.

Personalized nutrition interventions yield significantly greater reductions in body weight, BMI, waist circumference, and LDL cholesterol in individuals carrying the FTO risk genotype (TT/TC) compared to those with the non-risk genotype (CC).

If you carry the FTO risk genotype (TT or TC), a personalized nutrition plan is likely to be significantly more effective for weight and lipid management than a standard one-size-fits-all approach. You should prioritize interventions that are tailored to your specific metabolic profile, as your body appears to respond more robustly to dietary changes in this genetic context.