Browse the evidence

Combining moderate-to-vigorous aerobic exercise with 3.0 mg/day liraglutide yields superior weight loss maintenance and metabolic health improvements compared to either intervention alone or placebo.

To maintain weight loss effectively, combine daily 3.0 mg liraglutide with a structured exercise routine aiming for 150 minutes of moderate or 75 minutes of vigorous activity per week. This combination is significantly more effective for weight loss and metabolic health than using either method alone.

Moderate intensity endurance training (50% maximal exercise tolerance) is effective for reducing blood pressure, with high-intensity training providing no additional significant benefit.

To lower blood pressure, focus on moderate-intensity endurance exercise (around 50% of your max capacity). You do not need to train at high intensities to get the full blood pressure benefits, which makes this accessible and sustainable for many people.

Caffeine supplementation at low-to-moderate dosages (3-6 mg/kg) significantly enhances sport performance, particularly in endurance and high-intensity team sports, whereas higher dosages (≥9 mg/kg) do not provide further enhancement and may be counterproductive.

If you are a trained athlete, take 3-6 mg of caffeine per kg of body weight about an hour before your event. Do not exceed this range, as higher doses offer no extra benefit and may hurt your performance. Anhydrous caffeine (capsules/powder) is more effective than coffee, but coffee is still better than nothing if you prefer it.

Global adult consumption of healthful foods (fruits, vegetables, nuts/seeds, whole grains, seafood) is vastly insufficient, while consumption of less healthful foods (processed meats) is often excessive relative to optimal levels for chronic disease prevention.

Current global diets are significantly misaligned with optimal health guidelines. Most people do not consume enough fruits, vegetables, nuts, whole grains, or seafood, while many consume too much processed meat. To optimize health, individuals should aim to increase intake of plant-based foods and seafood while limiting processed meats, as current global averages fall far short of recommended targets for preventing chronic diseases.

Sarcopenia is a potentially reversible disease defined by the concurrent combination of reduced muscle mass and muscle strength, with muscle-specific strength also included as a component.

Sarcopenia is not just 'getting old'; it is a reversible condition defined by low muscle mass and strength. To address it, focus on resistance training and adequate protein intake to build muscle and strength, as these are the core components of the disease definition.

The DASH combination diet (rich in fruits, vegetables, low-fat dairy; reduced in saturated fat, total fat, and cholesterol) significantly lowers systolic and diastolic blood pressure in adults with high-normal blood pressure and stage 1 hypertension, independent of sodium reduction or weight loss.

Adopt the DASH combination diet for 8 weeks or more: eat more fruits, vegetables, and low-fat dairy, while reducing saturated fats, total fats, and cholesterol. Keep your weight and salt intake stable. This approach significantly lowers blood pressure, especially if you are African American or have hypertension, without needing to restrict sodium or lose weight.

The blood pressure-lowering effect of the DASH combination diet is significantly greater in African Americans and individuals with hypertension compared to their respective counterparts.

If you are African American or have hypertension, the DASH diet (high fruits/veggies/low-fat dairy, low saturated fat) is particularly effective for lowering blood pressure. You may see greater benefits than the average person following the same diet.

Muscle hypertrophy can be achieved with both high-load and low-load resistance training, provided that sets are performed to or near muscular failure, with no significant difference in whole muscle growth between loading zones.

You do not need to stick to a specific rep range (like 8-12) to build muscle. You can use heavy weights (low reps) or light weights (high reps) with equal effectiveness for muscle growth, as long as you push your sets close to failure. Choose the load that feels best for your joints and keeps you motivated.

Higher-load resistance training (≥80% 1RM) is the primary determinant for maximizing muscle strength gains, whereas multiple sets are the primary determinant for maximizing muscle hypertrophy.

If your main goal is to get stronger, prioritize lifting heavy weights (at least 80% of your one-rep max). If your main goal is to build muscle size, focus on doing multiple sets per exercise (e.g., 2-3 sets) rather than just one. You do not need to choose one goal over the other; high-load, multi-set training is the best of both worlds.

High cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) attenuates or eliminates the mortality risk associated with high BMI, such that 'fit' obese individuals have lower mortality risk than 'unfit' normal-weight individuals.

If you have a high BMI, focus on improving your cardiorespiratory fitness through regular aerobic exercise. This can significantly reduce your mortality risk, potentially to levels lower than someone with a normal BMI who is physically unfit. Fitness is a vital sign.

Adherence to evidence-based dietary patterns (DASH, Mediterranean, or vegetarian) significantly reduces cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality.

Adopt a dietary pattern rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and legumes, while minimizing processed meats, sugary drinks, and saturated fats. The DASH, Mediterranean, and vegetarian diets are the most strongly supported for preventing heart disease. If cost is a barrier, use canned or frozen produce without added sugar and dried beans.

Increased consumption of ultra-processed foods is a major contributor to the global pandemics of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and related non-communicable diseases.

Prioritize fresh or minimally processed foods (vegetables, fruits, grains, meats, dairy) and actively avoid ultra-processed foods (packaged snacks, sugary drinks, reconstituted meats, ready meals). Do not rely on 'reformulated' versions of these products as healthy alternatives; the processing level itself is the primary risk factor for obesity and metabolic disease.

Resistance training significantly increases whole-body muscle mass (fat-free, lean, and skeletal muscle mass) in healthy adult males, with an average gain of approximately 1.53 kg.

If you are a healthy adult male engaging in resistance training, you can expect to gain approximately 1.5 kg of whole-body muscle mass over a training period of 4 to 24 weeks. This gain is consistent regardless of your specific training experience level (untrained to advanced) or specific training variables like sets or intensity, though excessive sets per workout may negatively impact gains.

Long-term intensive lifestyle intervention (weight loss via caloric restriction and increased physical activity) significantly improves and preserves performance-based physical function (gait speed and lower extremity function) in overweight/obese middle-aged and older adults with type 2 diabetes, despite anticipated loss of lean mass.

For older adults with type 2 diabetes, aiming for modest weight loss (around 10%) and increasing physical activity to about 175 minutes per week can help maintain mobility and walking speed over the long term. This benefit persists even if you lose some muscle mass, so don't let the fear of 'losing muscle' stop you from trying lifestyle changes.

Diets high in ultra-processed foods cause excess ad libitum energy intake and weight gain compared to minimally processed diets, even when macronutrients and presented calories are matched.

Prioritize whole, minimally processed foods. Even if you match the calories and macros, ultra-processed foods make you eat more because of their physical structure and hyper-palatability. Focus on food quality and processing level, not just nutrient numbers.

Cardiorespiratory fitness is a vital sign that strongly predicts reduced morbidity and mortality, and even small increases in fitness (1.0-1.5 METs) provide significant protective effects against chronic disease and premature death.

Focus on improving your cardiorespiratory fitness, as it is the strongest predictor of living longer and healthier. You don't need to be an elite athlete; even small improvements (equivalent to walking slightly faster or climbing a few flights of stairs) can significantly reduce your risk of heart disease, cancer, and premature death. Consider fitness a vital sign to track.

Protein supplementation augments strength and hypertrophy.

If you are doing resistance training, protein supplementation can help you build more strength and muscle.

Creatine supplementation augments strength.

Creatine supplementation is an effective way to increase strength when combined with resistance training.

Adherence to a Mediterranean diet supplemented with extra-virgin olive oil or nuts significantly reduces cardiovascular events and inflammatory biomarkers compared to a low-fat diet.

Adopt a Mediterranean dietary pattern, specifically ensuring the inclusion of extra-virgin olive oil or nuts. This approach has been shown to reduce cardiovascular events and inflammation more effectively than a standard low-fat diet in high-risk individuals.

Adherence to the DASH dietary pattern reduces systolic blood pressure by 1–13 mm Hg and diastolic blood pressure by 1–10 mm Hg, with effects amplified when combined with weight loss or sodium restriction.

Adopt the DASH diet by prioritizing fruits, vegetables, low-fat dairy, and whole grains while limiting saturated fats and sugars. This approach is clinically proven to lower blood pressure significantly, often matching the effectiveness of standard blood pressure medications, especially if you also manage your weight and sodium intake.

Creatine supplementation combined with resistance training significantly increases fat-free mass (FFM) and body mass in both novice and experienced lifters, with experienced lifters gaining approximately 0.6 kg more FFM than novices, though this difference is not statistically significant.

If you are lifting weights, adding creatine will help you gain more muscle and body weight than training alone. This benefit applies whether you are just starting out or have been training for years. While experienced lifters might gain slightly more muscle than beginners, the difference isn't statistically significant, meaning creatine is a valuable tool for everyone.

High consumption of ultra-processed foods (UPFs) causes increased risk of obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease, independent of nutrient content, due to hyper-palatability and additive effects.

Shift your diet away from ultra-processed foods (soft drinks, packaged snacks, ready meals) towards freshly prepared dishes using unprocessed or minimally processed ingredients. Focus on the nature of the food, not just its calories or macros, as UPFs are linked to higher risks of obesity and chronic disease regardless of nutrient content.

Multifactorial intervention targeting blood glucose, blood pressure, and lipids reduces cardiovascular mortality in type 2 diabetes more effectively than standard care focused only on glucose.

To prevent heart attacks, you must manage your blood pressure and cholesterol in addition to your blood sugar. A holistic approach is more effective than focusing on glucose alone.

Increased consumption of ultra-processed foods is a major contributor to the global pandemics of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and related non-communicable diseases.

Prioritize fresh and minimally processed foods in your diet. Be aware that ultra-processed foods (UPFs) are a major driver of obesity and metabolic disease. UPFs are industrially formulated products high in sugars, unhealthy fats, and sodium, and low in fiber and protein. They are designed to be hyper-palatable and addictive. To improve health, reduce UPF consumption and replace them with whole or minimally processed alternatives. Policy changes are needed to make healthy foods more accessible and affordable.