Browse the evidence

Consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) causes a global burden of disease, resulting in approximately 184,000 deaths and 8.5 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) annually, primarily through increased risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and specific cancers.

To reduce your risk of diabetes, heart disease, and certain cancers, minimize or eliminate sugar-sweetened beverages. This includes sodas, sweetened fruit drinks, and sports drinks. The harm comes from the sugar content and its specific metabolic effects, not just the calories. Replacing SSBs with water or unsweetened beverages is a high-impact change for long-term health.

Central body obesity (excess fat above the hips) is a stronger risk factor for developing type 2 diabetes than fat stored in the hips and thighs.

Where you carry your weight matters for diabetes risk. If you carry excess fat around your midsection (central obesity), your risk for type 2 diabetes is higher than if you carry it in your hips and thighs.

An inactive lifestyle contributes to the development of type 2 diabetes, independent of or alongside obesity.

Sedentary behavior increases your risk of type 2 diabetes. Incorporating regular physical activity into your routine is essential for prevention, even if you are not overweight.

Concurrent endurance and resistance training attenuates gains in muscle hypertrophy and strength compared to resistance training alone, a phenomenon termed the 'interference effect'.

If your primary goal is maximizing muscle size or strength, be aware that adding significant endurance training (especially running) can blunt those gains. To minimize this interference, separate your endurance and resistance sessions by at least 6-8 hours, or prioritize resistance training first in the same session.

Consumption of fructose-rich beverages (sugar-sweetened soda and orange juice) increases the risk of incident gout in women, whereas diet soda does not.

If you are a woman concerned about gout, limit your intake of sugar-sweetened sodas and orange juice. The risk increases significantly with 1-2+ servings per day. Diet sodas do not appear to carry this risk. Focus on reducing fructose-rich beverages rather than just purine-rich foods.

GLP-1-based therapies (semaglutide, tirzepatide) cause lean mass loss proportional to total weight loss (approx. 15-45%), but this reduction is adaptive and accompanied by improved muscle quality (reduced fat infiltration), resulting in preserved or improved muscle function and strength.

If you are taking a GLP-1 medication like semaglutide or tirzepatide, expect to lose some muscle along with fat. This is normal and proportional to your weight loss. Crucially, these drugs often improve muscle quality by reducing fat inside the muscle, which helps preserve your strength and function. To maximize muscle retention, ensure you are consuming adequate protein and engaging in resistance training if possible.

High consumption of fish (more than three times per week) is associated with a significantly reduced risk of metastatic prostate cancer, whereas fish oil supplements show no such protective association.

To potentially lower your risk of developing aggressive, metastatic prostate cancer, aim to eat fish more than three times a week. Focus on fish like salmon, mackerel, sardines, bluefish, and swordfish, as well as canned tuna. Simply taking fish oil supplements does not appear to offer the same protection, suggesting the whole food is key. Note that other seafood like shrimp and lobster did not show this specific benefit.

Male endurance athletes oxidize a significantly greater amount of leucine during submaximal exercise compared to female endurance athletes, suggesting higher protein utilization for energy in males.

Men may burn more protein for fuel during endurance exercise than women do at the same relative intensity. This suggests men might need slightly higher protein intakes than women to offset this increased oxidation, although total protein needs are still driven by the need to maintain nitrogen balance.

Reducing saturated fat intake reduces the risk of combined cardiovascular events, primarily driven by a reduction in coronary heart disease events, with no significant effect on all-cause or cardiovascular mortality.

To lower your risk of heart disease events, try reducing your intake of saturated fats (found in red meat, full-fat dairy, butter, etc.). This change is associated with fewer heart attacks and other cardiovascular events. However, don't expect this change alone to significantly extend your lifespan or prevent all heart-related deaths. Focus on a balanced diet rather than just cutting one nutrient.

Co-ingesting protein (0.3-0.4 g/kg) with sub-optimal carbohydrate amounts (<1 g/kg/h) accelerates glycogen synthesis by augmenting insulin release, but has no additional effect when carbohydrate intake is adequate (>1 g/kg/h).

If you cannot eat enough carbohydrates after exercise (less than 1 g/kg/h), adding 0.3-0.4 g/kg of protein can help speed up glycogen recovery by boosting insulin. However, if you are already consuming sufficient carbohydrates (1 g/kg/h or more), adding protein will not further increase the rate of glycogen storage.

SGLT2 inhibitors reduce blood pressure and body weight in patients with Type 2 Diabetes.

SGLT2 inhibitors can help you lose a small amount of weight (about 1.7 kg or 2.4%) and lower your blood pressure. This is achieved through osmotic diuresis and reduced body fat mass. These effects contribute to overall cardiovascular and renal health.

GLP-1 receptor agonists (liraglutide, semaglutide, tirzepatide) induce significant weight loss and provide renoprotective effects (reduced albuminuria and slower eGFR decline) in adults with chronic kidney disease (CKD), with efficacy potentially maintained or enhanced in lower eGFR subgroups.

If you have CKD and obesity, newer GLP-1 medications (like semaglutide or tirzepatide) are highly effective for weight loss and may actually protect your kidneys by reducing protein in urine and slowing kidney function decline. Unlike diet and exercise alone, which often fail long-term, these drugs target the hormonal drivers of obesity. Start with a low dose and increase slowly to avoid stomach issues, and stay hydrated to protect your kidneys.

Consumption of tuna or other broiled/baked fish (1-4 times per week) is associated with a 27% lower risk of ischemic stroke in elderly individuals compared to consuming less than once per month.

If you are over 65, eating tuna or other baked/broiled fish 1-4 times a week is linked to a significantly lower risk of ischemic stroke compared to eating it rarely. However, avoid fried fish and fish sandwiches, as these are linked to a higher stroke risk. The preparation method matters as much as the fish itself.

Meal timing, specifically higher-calorie breakfasts and overnight fasting, helps prevent obesity.

Eat a larger breakfast and finish eating earlier in the evening. This aligns with your body's natural clock and may help prevent obesity. Avoid skipping breakfast and late-night snacking.

GLP-1 receptor agonists (e.g., liraglutide, semaglutide) resolve MASH histology primarily through substantial weight loss and improved insulin resistance, rather than direct hepatocyte effects.

GLP-1 agonists like semaglutide and liraglutide are effective treatments for MASH, but their primary benefit comes from the weight loss and metabolic improvements they induce, not a direct 'liver cure.' Expect significant weight loss (often 10-15%+), but also manage expectations regarding side effects like nausea, which are common initially. These drugs resolve MASH in a majority of patients but may not reverse advanced fibrosis as effectively. Consult a specialist to determine if the benefits outweigh the burden of injection and side effects for your specific liver stage.

In older adults, short sleep duration (<6 hours) increases all-cause mortality risk, a relationship mediated by elevated inflammatory markers (IL-6, TNF-α, CRP) and chronic health conditions.

If you are an older adult sleeping less than 6 hours regularly, your risk of mortality is higher, largely driven by increased inflammation and existing health conditions. Prioritizing 7 hours of sleep may help reduce these inflammatory markers and associated risks.

Internet-delivered weight loss interventions providing personalized feedback result in significantly greater short-term weight loss (3-6 months) compared to control groups without such feedback, but this advantage disappears in interventions lasting 12 months or longer.

Use internet-based weight loss programs that offer personalized feedback (whether from a coach or algorithm) if you are in the first 6 months of your journey; they offer a measurable advantage (approx. 2kg more loss) over generic programs. However, do not expect this advantage to persist beyond a year. You must actively maintain your habits after the initial feedback phase, as the digital support alone does not sustain long-term weight loss differences compared to controls.

Nationwide substitution of regular discretionary salt with potassium-enriched salt substitutes (20-30% KCl) in China yields a substantial net reduction in cardiovascular disease mortality by lowering systolic blood pressure, even when accounting for the increased risk of hyperkalemia in individuals with chronic kidney disease.

Replace your regular table salt and cooking salt with a potassium-enriched salt substitute (containing 20-30% potassium chloride). Use it in the same amounts you currently use regular salt, but try to use it slightly more sparingly if possible. This change lowers blood pressure and significantly reduces the risk of heart disease and stroke for the general population. If you have advanced kidney disease, consult your doctor, but note that even for kidney patients, the cardiovascular benefits of this switch generally outweigh the risks of potassium toxicity.

GLP-1 receptor agonists (semaglutide, tirzepatide, liraglutide) produce significant real-world weight loss, but effectiveness is substantially lower than in clinical trials due to high discontinuation rates (20-50%) and suboptimal dosing in routine care.

GLP-1 medications like semaglutide and tirzepatide are highly effective for weight loss, but their real-world success depends entirely on sticking with them. Many people stop early due to side effects or cost, leading to less weight loss than seen in trials. To get the best results, you must manage side effects (which often fade) and ensure you can afford the medication long-term. If you adhere to the full dose and stay on the drug, your weight loss can match what is seen in clinical trials.

Combining moderate-to-vigorous exercise with GLP-1 receptor agonist (liraglutide) treatment preserves hip and lumbar spine bone mineral density (BMD) during significant weight loss, whereas GLP-1 RA treatment alone reduces BMD at these sites despite similar weight loss.

If you are using a GLP-1 medication like liraglutide or semaglutide for weight loss, you must incorporate regular exercise to protect your bones. This study shows that while the medication alone might reduce bone density at the hip and spine, adding moderate-to-vigorous exercise (like cycling and circuit training) completely preserves bone density, even when you lose a significant amount of weight. Do not rely on the medication alone for skeletal health.

Personalized Type 2 Diabetes management, which tailors pharmacotherapy to individual phenotypic, clinical, and personal factors, improves medication adherence, patient satisfaction, and health outcomes compared to rigid algorithmic approaches.

Work with your doctor to build a treatment plan that fits your specific health profile (like kidney or heart status) and your personal life (like fear of hypoglycemia or preference for pills vs. injections). This collaborative approach leads to better adherence and fewer complications than following a generic, one-size-fits-all checklist.

Personalized glycemic targets should be less aggressive in older patients or those with reduced life expectancy to minimize hypoglycemia risk and polypharmacy burden.

If you are older or have other serious health conditions, your doctor may aim for a higher blood sugar target to keep you safe from dangerous lows and side effects. This focuses on your quality of life rather than just a number.

Short-term high-volume resistance training induces muscle hypertrophy primarily through sarcoplasmic expansion (increased sarcoplasmic proteins and glycolytic enzymes) rather than myofibrillar accretion, often accompanied by a decrease in actin and myosin concentrations.

If you are new to resistance training or returning after a break, your initial muscle size gains may come largely from increased fluid and metabolic enzymes (sarcoplasm) rather than thicker muscle fibers. This means you might see visual size increases before significant strength gains. This is a normal, healthy adaptation to high-volume training and does not negate the value of the training.

Short-term step reduction (<1000 steps/day) in older adults triggers rapid metabolic perturbations indicating muscle energy decline and protein degradation, which are not fully reversible after two weeks of resumed normal activity.

If you are an older adult, even a short break from your normal walking routine (less than 1,000 steps a day) can trigger metabolic changes in your muscles that suggest protein breakdown. These changes don't always bounce back quickly when you start moving normally again. To protect your muscle health, try to maintain a baseline level of daily movement rather than taking long breaks, especially if you are already at risk for metabolic issues.