Browse the evidence

Caffeine produces dose-dependent psychomotor effects where low doses (250 mg) enhance performance and subjective pleasantness, while high doses (500 mg) impair performance and increase adverse somatic symptoms.

Stick to a moderate dose of caffeine (around 250 mg, roughly two cups of coffee) for optimal performance and mood benefits. Taking a high dose (500 mg) does not improve performance further and significantly increases the risk of anxiety, restlessness, and physical discomfort. Monitor your plasma concentration if possible, but generally, less is more once you pass the moderate threshold.

High intake of simple carbohydrates (sucrose, fructose) causes rapid deregulation of gut microbiota composition, leading to metabolic dysfunction, whereas complex carbohydrates (fiber, resistant starch) promote beneficial bacteria (Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus) and short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production, supporting metabolic health.

Focus on complex carbohydrates like vegetables, whole grains, and legumes rather than sugary foods. Aim for about 30g of fiber daily to support gut bacteria that produce beneficial compounds for your metabolism.

High intake of saturated fatty acids (SFA) promotes gut dysbiosis characterized by increased bile-tolerant anaerobes (Bilophila) and inflammation, whereas polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) support a healthier microbiota profile with higher diversity and beneficial bacteria.

Prioritize sources of unsaturated fats (like nuts, fish, olive oil) over saturated fats (like butter, fatty meats). This shift supports a more diverse and healthy gut microbiome.

Sustained weight loss on a very low-fat diet significantly decreases plasma leptin concentrations, with the magnitude of decrease correlating with the amount of body mass lost.

Losing weight significantly lowers your leptin levels, which is a biological signal that increases hunger and reduces energy expenditure. This effect is proportional to the amount of fat you lose. To manage this, you must be aware that your body will biologically fight against maintaining a lower weight, requiring sustained behavioral strategies.

Overweight/obese women have higher plasma leptin levels per unit of adiposity (leptin/adiposity ratio) compared to normal weight women, and this ratio decreases significantly after sustained weight loss in the overweight/obese group.

If you are overweight, your body produces more leptin for every pound of fat than a lean person does. When you lose weight, this 'leptin efficiency' improves significantly, dropping by about 30%. This suggests that obesity involves a specific hormonal resistance or dysregulation that improves with fat loss.

Genetic variants in the FTO gene are robustly associated with increased body mass index (BMI) and obesity risk in humans, primarily by increasing energy intake rather than altering energy expenditure.

If you carry FTO risk variants, your biology may predispose you to higher food intake. Focus on strategies that manage appetite and food choices, as this is the primary mechanism by which these genes influence weight in humans.

Daily consumption of 20g of extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) containing at least 5mg of hydroxytyrosol (HT) and its derivatives provides cardioprotective benefits, including protection of LDL from oxidative damage, maintenance of normal blood pressure, and anti-inflammatory effects.

To get the heart-protective benefits described, you need to eat about 1.5 tablespoons (20g) of high-quality Extra-Virgin Olive Oil every day. It is not enough to just eat 'olive oil'; it must be Extra-Virgin and contain at least 5mg of hydroxytyrosol and its derivatives. This fits into a Mediterranean diet pattern rich in vegetables and fruits. If you are at high risk for heart disease, this specific intake has been shown to significantly reduce major cardiovascular events compared to a low-fat diet.

High consumption of soy and isoflavones is associated with a decreased risk of post-menopausal breast cancer and localized prostate cancer.

If you consume soy products like tofu, miso, or natto regularly, current evidence from large Japanese cohorts suggests this dietary pattern is associated with a lower risk of breast and prostate cancer. This is likely due to the hormonal modulation properties of isoflavones.

High intake of fish and n-3 fatty acids is associated with a decreased risk of proximal colon cancer, liver cancer, and myocardial infarction.

Eating fish regularly, as is common in Japanese diets, is associated with a lower risk of heart attacks and certain cancers (colon, liver). This dietary pattern appears safe and beneficial.

High intake of red meat and saturated fat is associated with an increased risk of colon cancer, prostate cancer, and myocardial infarction.

Limiting red meat and saturated fat intake is associated with lower risks of colon, prostate, and heart disease. This aligns with standard cardiovascular and cancer prevention guidelines.

High salt and salted food intake is associated with an increased risk of stomach cancer and cardiovascular disease.

Reducing salt and salted food intake (pickles, salted fish) is associated with lower risks of stomach cancer and cardiovascular disease. This supports standard sodium reduction guidelines.

Green tea consumption is associated with a decreased risk of stomach cancer, advanced prostate cancer, and stroke.

Drinking green tea regularly is associated with lower risks of stomach cancer, advanced prostate cancer, and stroke. This supports incorporating green tea into a healthy diet.

Heavy resistance training induces region-specific hypertrophy (increased cross-sectional area) in the human patellar tendon, specifically at the proximal and distal regions, while the mid-tendon remains unchanged.

If you perform heavy resistance training (e.g., heavy leg extensions), your patellar tendons will physically grow thicker at the ends (near the knee and shin bones) over 12 weeks. This structural change may help protect the tendon from injury by distributing force more effectively, even if the middle part of the tendon doesn't change size.

Heavy resistance training increases patellar tendon stiffness without changing the tendon modulus (material property), suggesting structural hypertrophy rather than just material stiffening.

Heavy training makes your tendons stiffer, but this is a good adaptation. It happens because the tendon gets thicker (hypertrophy), not because the material itself changes quality. This thicker, stiffer tendon handles load better and may be less prone to injury.

A gut microbiota-targeted dietary intervention (WTP diet) comprising whole grains, traditional Chinese medicinal foods, and prebiotics reduces chronic low-grade inflammation and improves metabolic syndrome markers in central obese adults by modulating gut microbiota composition, enhancing intestinal barrier integrity, and reducing circulating endotoxin load.

Adopt a diet rich in whole grains, prebiotics, and specific functional foods (like bitter melon and adlay) to support gut health. This specific combination (WTP diet) was shown to reduce weight, improve insulin sensitivity, and lower inflammation markers in obese individuals by improving gut barrier function and reducing harmful bacteria. The protocol involves specific ready-to-use formulas for 9 weeks, followed by a maintenance phase emphasizing high-fiber home-cooked meals.

Obesity (BMI >30 kg/m2) is an independent risk factor for miscarriage and reduced success in assisted reproductive technologies (ART), regardless of PCOS status.

If you are planning pregnancy or undergoing fertility treatment, maintaining a healthy weight reduces your risk of miscarriage. Higher BMI is linked to lower success rates in IVF and higher miscarriage rates, independent of other conditions like PCOS.

Adult-onset GH deficiency (AO) patients exhibit significantly greater psychosocial distress and greater improvements in quality of life (physical mobility, energy) following GH therapy compared to childhood-onset (CO) patients, who show no consistent long-term QoL benefits.

If you were diagnosed with GH deficiency as an adult, you are likely to see significant improvements in your energy levels and physical mobility after starting treatment. However, if your deficiency started in childhood, you may not experience these same quality of life benefits, even if your body composition improves. This is because your body adapted to the deficiency during your development, whereas adult-onset patients lose a previously normal state.

GH therapy increases lean body mass and decreases body fat in both childhood-onset (CO) and adult-onset (AO) GH-deficient patients, but AO patients show greater improvements in lipid profiles (Total and LDL cholesterol reduction) and waist/hip ratio reduction compared to CO patients.

GH therapy will likely improve your muscle mass and reduce body fat regardless of when your deficiency started. However, if your deficiency started in childhood, you may not see the same improvements in your cholesterol levels or waist size as someone who developed the deficiency as an adult. This is because the metabolic regulation of lipids and fat distribution differs between those who grew up with the deficiency and those who acquired it later in life.

Consumption of fish (2-4 servings/week or more) is moderately associated with a reduced risk of cerebrovascular disease (stroke).

Aim to eat fish 2-4 times per week to potentially lower your risk of stroke. Focus on the whole food rather than relying on supplements, as the combination of nutrients in fish appears to drive the benefit.

The presence of health claims on food packaging creates a 'halo effect' that increases perceived product healthiness and purchase intent, but simultaneously discourages consumers from reading detailed nutrition information on the back of the package.

If you see a health claim on the front of a package (e.g., 'Heart Healthy'), expect that it will make the product seem healthier and more appealing. However, do not stop there. Turn the package over and read the Nutrition Facts panel. The claim may distract you from high levels of sugar, sodium, or saturated fat that are not addressed by the claim. Use the claim as a filter, not a final verdict.

Consumers generally prefer short, succinct health claims over long, complex, or scientifically worded ones, and they often do not distinguish between nutrient content, structure-function, and disease risk claims.

When shopping, look for short, clear health claims on the front of the package. These are more likely to be understood and trusted. However, be aware that you might be conflating a simple nutrient claim (like 'high fiber') with a major health benefit. To get the full picture, read the nutrition facts panel on the back, even if the front claim is short and appealing.

Long-term pharmacotherapy with orlistat, sibutramine, or rimonabant produces modest but statistically significant weight loss (approx. 3-5 kg) compared to placebo in adults with obesity or overweight.

If you have obesity or overweight with related health issues, long-term medication (orlistat, sibutramine, or rimonabant) combined with lifestyle changes can help you lose a modest amount of weight (3-5 kg) compared to doing nothing. This small loss is clinically beneficial for your health, even if it doesn't solve obesity entirely.

Orlistat reduces the incidence of type 2 diabetes and improves cardiovascular risk factors (lipids, blood pressure, glycaemic control) in patients with diabetes, despite increasing gastrointestinal side effects.

If you have diabetes or high cardiovascular risk, orlistat can help lower your risk of developing more diabetes and improve your cholesterol and blood pressure. Be prepared for potential gastrointestinal side effects, which are common but often manageable.

Sibutramine improves lipid profiles (HDL, triglycerides) but increases blood pressure and heart rate, while rimonabant improves lipid profiles and glycaemic control but increases the risk of mood disorders.

Sibutramine and rimonabant can improve your cholesterol and blood sugar, but they come with specific risks: sibutramine raises blood pressure and heart rate, while rimonabant increases the risk of mood disorders. Your doctor will screen you to ensure these risks are manageable.