Browse the evidence

GLP-2 (specifically the analogue teduglutide) promotes intestinal mucosal growth and nutrient absorption, making it an effective treatment for short bowel syndrome (SBS).

For patients with short bowel syndrome who rely on intravenous nutrition, teduglutide (a GLP-2 analogue) is an approved daily injection that helps the intestine grow and absorb more nutrients. This can reduce the need for intravenous feeding. It is specifically designed to resist breakdown in the body, making it effective for chronic use.

Advanced maternal age (≥35 years) is a strong, non-modifiable risk factor for GDM, with risk increasing linearly with age.

If you are over 35, be aware your risk for GDM is higher. Prioritize the lifestyle interventions (diet and exercise) mentioned earlier, as they are even more critical for this age group.

Tirzepatide treatment does not increase the risk of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE-4) in patients with type 2 diabetes compared to control groups.

If you have type 2 diabetes, taking tirzepatide once a week does not increase your risk of heart attacks, strokes, or cardiovascular death compared to other standard treatments. This holds true for patients with both low and high existing heart risk, providing a safe option for cardiovascular protection while managing blood sugar.

High-dose vitamin D supplementation (4000-10,000 IU/day) does not improve bone health and is associated with a significant decrease in volumetric bone mineral density (BMD) at the radius and tibia compared to a low dose (400 IU/day).

If you are a healthy adult over 55 with normal vitamin D levels, taking high-dose vitamin D (4000-10,000 IU daily) will not strengthen your bones and may actually weaken them over time. Stick to standard recommended doses (around 400-800 IU) unless you have a diagnosed deficiency, as high doses can disrupt the hormones that regulate bone density.

NCL-1 (TRIM2/Brat) mediates lifespan extension in major longevity pathways by limiting nucleolar size and reducing fibrillarin expression.

In C. elegans, the protein NCL-1 is essential for the lifespan benefits of various longevity pathways. It works by reducing the size of the nucleolus and lowering fibrillarin levels. This suggests that regulating nucleolar function is a critical step in extending life in these genetic models.

Leptin signaling in POMC neurons is essential for energy homeostasis, and leptin deficiency causes obesity, which can be corrected by leptin administration.

Leptin is crucial for weight regulation, but it only works as a treatment for those with a specific genetic deficiency. It is not a general weight-loss drug for the majority of people with obesity.

Exogenous leptin therapy is effective in treating obesity and metabolic disorders only in individuals with congenital leptin deficiency or generalized lipodystrophy, but is ineffective for the majority of people with common obesity.

Leptin therapy is not a weight-loss drug for the general public. It is a life-saving treatment for rare genetic conditions where the body produces no leptin. For most people with obesity, adding more leptin does not work because the body has stopped listening to it.

Dual-PPARα/γ agonists (glitazars) like muraglitazar, tesaglitazar, and aleglitazar have largely failed in clinical development for type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease due to severe safety concerns, including heart failure, renal dysfunction, and increased mortality.

Do not seek out dual-PPAR agonists like muraglitazar or aleglitazar. These drugs were developed for diabetes and heart health but were withdrawn from the market because they caused serious side effects like heart failure and kidney problems. Stick to established treatments with proven safety profiles.

NOS1-expressing glutamatergic neurons in the preoptic area link thermal sensory information to NREM onset and body cooling.

This is a basic science finding explaining how warmth triggers sleep at the neural level. It confirms that sleep initiation is an active process driven by specific brain circuits responding to warmth, rather than a passive state.

Inhibition of IL-11 signaling through genetic deletion or therapeutic antibody administration extends mammalian healthspan and lifespan by mitigating age-associated metabolic decline, frailty, and tissue fibrosis.

This research suggests that targeting the IL-11 pathway could be a viable strategy for extending healthspan and lifespan in humans. While the study was conducted in mice, the findings support the potential of anti-IL-11 therapies, which are already in clinical trials for other conditions, to mitigate age-related decline. For now, this remains a preclinical finding, but it highlights IL-11 as a promising target for future longevity interventions.

LEAP2 acts as a GHSR antagonist that hyperpolarizes arcuate NPY neurons and prevents acyl-ghrelin from activating them, thereby blunting ghrelin's orexigenic effects.

This is a deep biological mechanism showing how your brain processes hunger signals. LEAP2 physically blocks the hunger signal at the neuronal level. This explains why high levels of LEAP2 in obesity might contribute to 'ghrelin resistance,' where the hunger signal is less effective.

VLCKD is contraindicated in patients with Type 1 Diabetes, renal failure, liver failure, and certain cardiac conditions due to risks of euglycemic ketoacidosis, electrolyte imbalance, and metabolic stress.

Do not attempt this diet if you have Type 1 Diabetes, kidney or liver disease, or severe heart failure. These conditions make the metabolic shift of ketosis dangerous. Consult your doctor for safer alternatives.

Lorcaserin was withdrawn from the US market in 2020 due to an increased risk of cancer observed in clinical trials, despite showing modest weight loss efficacy.

Lorcaserin (Belviq) is no longer available in the US because it was linked to a higher risk of cancer. Do not seek this medication.

Once-weekly mazdutide (3–6 mg) administered for 24 weeks produces robust, dose-dependent body weight reduction (up to 11.3%) and improves cardio-metabolic risk factors in Chinese overweight or obese adults.

For Chinese adults with obesity or overweight with related health issues, a once-weekly injection of mazdutide (up to 6 mg) for 24 weeks can lead to significant weight loss (up to 11%) and improved heart health markers. While gastrointestinal side effects like nausea are common, they are usually manageable and do not typically cause patients to stop treatment.

Once-weekly subcutaneous tirzepatide (5, 10, and 15 mg) produces significant, dose-dependent weight loss and improvements in cardiometabolic markers compared to placebo in adults with or without type 2 diabetes.

If you are an adult with obesity or overweight (with or without Type 2 Diabetes), once-weekly tirzepatide injections (5-15 mg) are a highly effective medical intervention for weight loss, averaging 8-12% body weight reduction depending on the dose. It also improves blood pressure, blood sugar, and lipids. While you may experience temporary gastrointestinal issues like nausea, these are usually mild and subside over time. This treatment is significantly more effective than older anti-obesity drugs and is generally safe, with no increased risk of serious adverse events compared to placebo.

Survodutide, a dual glucagon and GLP-1 receptor agonist, produces significant weight loss, BMI reduction, and waist circumference reduction in adults with overweight or obesity.

Survodutide is a once-weekly injection that significantly reduces weight, BMI, and waist size. The benefits are greater with higher doses (>2mg/week) and longer treatment durations (>16 weeks). It is particularly effective for individuals under 50 years old. Common side effects are gastrointestinal, but it offers a non-surgical option for weight management.

The efficacy of Survodutide for weight loss is conditional on dose and duration, with doses >2 mg/week and interventions >16 weeks yielding significantly greater reductions in weight and waist circumference.

To maximize weight loss with Survodutide, ensure you are on a dose above 2 mg/week and continue treatment for at least 16 weeks. Lower doses or shorter durations result in less significant weight and waist circumference reduction.

Weekly subcutaneous administration of Tirzepatide (5-15 mg) significantly reduces body weight and body fat percentage in non-diabetic obese patients compared to placebo, with effects comparable to bariatric surgery.

If you are obese and non-diabetic, Tirzepatide is a highly effective weekly injection that can lead to significant weight loss (up to ~21%) and fat loss, outperforming previous GLP-1 drugs. It requires a commitment to weekly injections and lifestyle changes (diet and 150 mins/week exercise), but may offer a better side-effect profile regarding nausea than older drugs due to its dual GIP/GLP-1 mechanism.

A once-weekly synthetic semaglutide formulation (test drug) provides weight loss efficacy and safety comparable to the innovator semaglutide (Wegovy) in Indian adults with obesity over a 24-week period.

If you are an adult in India with obesity who has struggled to lose weight through diet and exercise alone, this study shows that a once-weekly synthetic semaglutide injection works just as well as the brand-name version (Wegovy) over 24 weeks. You can expect to lose about 14-15% of your body weight if you follow the dose-titration schedule (starting low and increasing every 4 weeks) alongside a 500-calorie daily deficit and 150 minutes of weekly exercise. While you may experience common side effects like nausea or constipation, they are generally mild and manageable. This option may be more affordable than the brand name, making it a viable long-term management tool.

An 8-week Very Low Carbohydrate Diet (VLCD) in older adults with obesity promotes significantly greater loss of visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and intermuscular adipose tissue (IMAT) compared to a standard low-fat diet, while preserving skeletal muscle mass.

If you are an older adult with obesity, switching to a very low-carbohydrate diet (less than 10% of calories from carbs) for 8 weeks can help you lose visceral and intermuscular fat much faster than a standard low-fat diet, without losing your actual muscle mass. You don't need to count calories strictly; simply prioritizing fats and proteins while keeping carbs very low tends to naturally reduce calorie intake and improve insulin sensitivity.

A Very Low Carbohydrate Diet improves insulin sensitivity and favorable lipid profiles (increased HDL, decreased triglycerides) in older adults with obesity compared to a low-fat diet.

Beyond just weight loss, switching to a very low-carbohydrate diet can significantly improve your blood markers for heart health, specifically by lowering triglycerides and raising HDL cholesterol, more so than a standard low-fat diet would.

Tirzepatide (5 mg, 10 mg, and 15 mg) significantly reduces body weight in patients with type 2 diabetes and obesity compared to placebo, GLP-1 receptor agonists, and basal insulin.

Tirzepatide is a highly effective treatment for weight loss in people with T2DM or obesity, outperforming other common medications like GLP-1 agonists and insulin. It is taken as a once-weekly injection. While it causes gastrointestinal side effects like nausea and diarrhea, these are usually mild and temporary. If you are considering this, discuss the benefits of significant weight loss against the potential for temporary stomach issues with your doctor.

Subcutaneous Tirzepatide significantly reduces body weight, BMI, and waist circumference in adults with obesity or type 2 diabetes compared to placebo.

If you have obesity or type 2 diabetes and lifestyle changes haven't been enough, Tirzepatide is a highly effective, once-weekly injection that significantly reduces weight, BMI, and waist circumference. The effect is dose-dependent, with higher doses (up to 15mg) yielding greater weight loss. Be prepared for potential gastrointestinal side effects like nausea, which are common but often manageable.

In real-world clinical practice, tirzepatide produces significantly greater weight loss and higher rates of achieving clinically meaningful weight loss thresholds (≥5%, ≥10%, ≥15%) compared to semaglutide in adults with overweight or obesity.

If you are using tirzepatide (Mounjaro) or semaglutide (Ozempic) for weight loss, real-world data suggests that tirzepatide is more effective at helping you lose significant amounts of weight (10% or more of your body weight) compared to semaglutide. You are also more likely to reach these milestones faster with tirzepatide. However, both drugs carry similar risks of gastrointestinal side effects, so tolerability is a key factor in choosing between them.