Browse the evidence

Supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA) reduces systemic inflammation and clinical symptoms in autoimmune and inflammatory diseases by suppressing proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1, TNF, IL-6) and shifting eicosanoid production toward less inflammatory derivatives.

If you have an inflammatory or autoimmune condition, increasing your intake of EPA and DHA (found in fish oil) may help reduce inflammation and symptoms. This is achieved by suppressing proinflammatory cytokines like IL-1 and TNF. While dietary changes are beneficial, therapeutic doses often require supplementation to achieve sufficient levels in cell membranes.

A high omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acid ratio in the diet contributes to increased incidence of cardiovascular disease and inflammatory disorders by promoting the production of proinflammatory eicosanoids and cytokines.

To reduce inflammation and cardiovascular risk, aim to balance your intake of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. This involves reducing excessive omega-6 intake (common in Western diets) and increasing omega-3 intake, potentially through diet or supplementation.

Prolonged television watching is independently associated with a significantly increased risk of developing obesity and type 2 diabetes in women, even after adjusting for physical activity levels.

If you watch a lot of TV, be aware that it carries a specific health risk for obesity and diabetes that is not fully negated by your exercise routine. Try to limit TV time to under 10 hours per week and incorporate light activity like standing or walking around the house to mitigate these risks.

High dietary glycemic load combined with low cereal fiber intake significantly increases the risk of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) in men, independent of other known risk factors.

To lower your risk of type 2 diabetes, focus on the quality of your carbohydrates rather than just cutting them out. Choose minimally refined grains (high cereal fiber) and avoid foods that spike blood sugar rapidly (high glycemic load). Combining high-fiber, low-glycemic foods is the most protective dietary strategy identified.

Higher dietary glycemic index is positively associated with an increased risk of NIDDM in men, but this association is statistically significant only after adjusting for cereal fiber intake.

Monitor the Glycemic Index of your carbohydrate sources. While total carbs matter, the speed at which they enter your bloodstream (Glycemic Index) impacts diabetes risk. Prioritize low-GI foods to manage insulin demand.

Higher intake of cereal fiber is inversely associated with the risk of NIDDM in men, independent of other fiber types and dietary confounders.

Increase your intake of cereal fiber by choosing whole grains over refined grains. Aim for more than 8.1 grams of cereal fiber per day to significantly lower your risk of type 2 diabetes.

High consumption of total fruits and vegetables (specifically green leafy vegetables) is associated with a modest reduction in the risk of major chronic disease, primarily driven by a reduction in cardiovascular disease risk, with no significant association observed for overall cancer incidence.

To support heart health, aim to increase your daily intake of fruits and vegetables by about five servings, with a specific focus on green leafy vegetables (one extra serving daily). This habit is linked to a modest but real reduction in cardiovascular disease risk. However, do not rely on vegetables alone to prevent cancer; the evidence for cancer prevention from general fruit/vegetable intake is weak or non-existent in this study.

Transitioning to emerging adulthood (ages 18-25) and enrolling in college is associated with significant adverse changes in weight-related behaviors, including increased obesity prevalence, decreased physical activity, and poorer diet quality.

If you are 18-25 and starting college or independent living, recognize this as a high-risk window for weight gain. Your environment (dining halls, marketing, stress) will likely push you toward poorer habits. Proactively establish routines for sleep, activity, and food choices now, as these patterns tend to track into adulthood.

College enrollment, particularly the first semester, is associated with significant weight gain (average 1.5-6.8 lbs) and decreased physical activity, with effects often maintained over 4 years.

Be aware that your first semester of college is a critical time for weight gain. Limit exposure to 'all-you-can-eat' dining halls and high-fat snacks. Prioritize physical activity even if your schedule is tight, as this gain tends to persist through graduation.

Six weeks of low-volume sprint interval training (SIT) induces metabolic adaptations in skeletal muscle carbohydrate and lipid metabolism during exercise that are comparable to those induced by high-volume traditional endurance training (ET).

If you are busy, you can achieve similar metabolic health benefits to long-distance cycling by doing short, all-out sprints. Perform 4-6 sprints of 30 seconds each, 3 times a week, with 4.5 minutes of rest between sprints. This takes about 10-15 minutes of actual exercise time per session, significantly less than the 4.5 hours required for traditional endurance training, yet yields comparable improvements in your muscles' ability to burn fat and carbs.

Consumption of processed meat is associated with a significantly higher incidence of coronary heart disease (42% higher risk per 50-g serving per day) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (19% higher risk per 50-g serving per day).

Limit your intake of processed meats (such as bacon, sausages, hot dogs, and deli meats) to reduce your risk of heart disease and type 2 diabetes. The study suggests that each daily serving of processed meat increases your risk, whereas unprocessed red meat did not show the same significant association in this analysis.

A lower resting energy expenditure (REE) is a significant risk factor for future body-weight gain in individuals who are not obese.

If you struggle with weight gain despite eating what seems like a normal amount, your resting metabolic rate might be lower than average. This isn't a failure of willpower; it's a biological risk factor. To manage this, you likely need to be more consistent with physical activity and mindful of portion sizes than someone with a higher metabolic rate, as your body burns fewer calories at rest.

Chronic partial sleep restriction (4-6 hours/night) causes insulin resistance and impaired glucose tolerance in healthy adults through direct metabolic effects and neuroendocrine dysregulation of appetite hormones.

Prioritize 7-9 hours of sleep nightly. Chronic sleep restriction (less than 6 hours) directly impairs your body's ability to process glucose and increases insulin resistance, mimicking pre-diabetic states. It also disrupts hunger hormones (lowering leptin, raising ghrelin), driving cravings for high-carb foods. Protecting sleep duration is as critical for metabolic health as diet and exercise.

Short sleep duration is independently associated with an increased risk of obesity and Type 2 diabetes in epidemiological studies, even after controlling for BMI and other lifestyle factors.

Aim for 7-9 hours of sleep. Epidemiological data shows that consistently sleeping less than 6-7 hours is linked to higher rates of obesity and Type 2 diabetes, independent of diet and exercise. Prioritizing sleep duration is a key strategy for long-term metabolic health.

Higher baseline blood levels of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (EPA, DHA, DPA) are associated with a significantly reduced risk of sudden cardiac death in men without prior cardiovascular disease.

Maintaining higher blood levels of long-chain n-3 fatty acids (found in fatty fish) is associated with a significantly lower risk of sudden cardiac death, even in men with no prior heart disease. This suggests that regular consumption of fish or appropriate supplementation may be a valuable preventive strategy for cardiovascular longevity.

Self-administered semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaires (FFQs) provide valid and reproducible estimates of long-term intake for frequently consumed foods (e.g., dairy, beverages), but significantly overestimate socially desirable foods (fruits/vegetables) and underestimate less desirable foods (animal products) due to social desirability bias.

Use food frequency questionnaires to compare relative dietary patterns between individuals, but do not rely on them for precise absolute intake estimates of specific foods. Be aware that users will likely over-report fruits and vegetables and under-report meats and fats due to social desirability bias.

Higher predicted plasma 25-hydroxy-vitamin D levels are associated with significantly reduced total cancer incidence and mortality, with the strongest protective effects observed for digestive-system cancers.

Maintain healthy vitamin D levels, potentially through sun exposure and diet, as higher levels are linked to lower cancer risk in men. The study suggests that achieving a 25 nmol/L increase in blood levels might require at least 1500 IU/day of supplementation, though individual needs vary based on skin pigmentation, BMI, and geography.

Digestive-system cancers (colorectal, pancreatic, esophageal) show the strongest inverse association with vitamin D status, with mortality reductions up to 45%.

For men, maintaining adequate Vitamin D levels may be particularly important for preventing digestive cancers. The study suggests a strong link between higher Vitamin D levels and lower mortality from colorectal, pancreatic, and esophageal cancers.

Bariatric surgery significantly increases the likelihood of long-term remission of type 2 diabetes compared to non-surgical management, with remission rates remaining higher than controls even after 15 years.

For individuals with obesity and type 2 diabetes, bariatric surgery offers a high probability of long-term diabetes remission compared to non-surgical management. While remission rates decline over time, they remain significantly higher than those not undergoing surgery, and the procedure is also associated with reduced macrovascular and microvascular complications.

The Body Roundness Index (BRI), derived from height and waist/hip circumferences using an elliptical geometric model, provides a more accurate prediction of total body fat percentage and visceral adipose tissue (VAT) than Body Mass Index (BMI) or waist circumference alone.

Use the Body Roundness Index (BRI) instead of BMI to get a better picture of your health risk. BRI uses your height, waist, and hip measurements to estimate body fat and visceral fat more accurately. You can calculate it easily using the free online tool provided by the researchers. This is especially useful if you are muscular or have a higher BMI but want to know your actual fat levels.

Global average sodium intake (3.95 g/day) is nearly double the WHO recommended limit (2 g/day), meaning virtually all populations exceed levels associated with increased cardiovascular risk and blood pressure.

Check your sodium intake. Most people eat nearly double the recommended amount. Reducing sodium is a high-impact action for heart health, regardless of your current diet.

Higher intake of added sugar, specifically consuming 10% or more of daily calories from added sugars, is associated with a significantly increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality in US adults.

To lower your risk of dying from heart disease, limit added sugars to less than 10% of your daily calories. This is roughly equivalent to less than 100 calories for women and 150 calories for men, according to American Heart Association guidelines cited in the study. Focus on reducing sugar-sweetened beverages, grain-based desserts, and fruit drinks, which are the primary sources of added sugar in the US diet.

Mouth rinsing with a carbohydrate solution for 5-10 seconds during high-intensity exercise lasting 45-75 minutes enhances performance by 2-3% via central nervous system effects, independent of metabolic absorption.

If you are doing a hard effort like a 1-mile run or a 45-minute high-intensity interval session, swish a sports drink in your mouth for 5-10 seconds and spit it out. This tricks your brain into feeling like you are fueling, which can boost your performance by a few percent without upsetting your stomach.

Training with low carbohydrate availability ('train low') enhances metabolic adaptations (e.g., enzyme activity) but does not currently provide convincing evidence for improved athletic performance compared to high carbohydrate availability strategies.

Don't intentionally train with low glycogen to 'trick' your body into getting faster. While it might change some muscle markers, it won't make you faster and might make your hard workouts worse. Instead, fuel high-intensity sessions well. You can naturally train with lower carbs during easy recovery days or early morning sessions if convenient, but don't force it for performance gains.